THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


This  book  is  DUE  on  last  date  stamped  below 


THE     .     .     . 

LIVING  RACES 
OF  MANKIND 


^N     ARAB     WOMAN. 


THE  STANDARD  LIBRARY 

OF 

Natural  History 

EMBRACING 

Living  Animals  of  the  World 
and  Living  Races  of  Mankind 

EDITORS  AND  SPECIAL  CONTRIBUTORS  : 

Charles  J.  Cornish,  F.  C.  Selous,  Ernest  Ingersoll,  Sir  Harry  Johnston,  K.C.B., 
Sir  Herbert  Maxwell,  F.R.S.,  H.  N.  Hutchinson,  F.R.G.S., 

J.   W.   Gregory,  F  G.S.,  R.  Lydekker,   F.R.S., 
F.Z.S.,  and  many  other  eminent 
naturalists 

Nearly    Two     Thousand    Illustrations 

Q 

Vol.  IV 

OCEANIA—  ASIA—  AFRICA 

yj\j  :'v\  £  £   :'  '  ,yn  ;     :-,-:;;  :-:  ,% 

>,Y;    ''I    :      —  -    ^    ;«    ;.,     ;      ,         -,     „ 

1907 
THE  UNIVERSITY  SOCIETY  INC. 

NEW  YORK 

1 

COPYRIGHT,   1906 
By  THE  UNIVERSITY   SOCIETY 

COPYRIGHT,  1901-1902 
By  DODD,  MEAD  AND  COMPANY 


Bionvdittl 
Library 

G<i- 

45 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION       ..... 

I.  FIJI  ISLANDS,  POLYNESIANS,  POLY- 
NESIAN RELIGION,  TONGA  OR  FRIENDLY 
ISLANDS,  SAMOA,  HERVEY  ISLANDS, 
SOCIETY  ISLANDS,  PITCAIRN  ISLANDS 
AND  SANDWICH  ISLANDS  . 

II.  NEW  GUINEA,  BISMARCK  ARCHI- 
PELAGO, ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS,  SOLO- 
MON ISLANDS,  NEW  HEBRIDES,  NEW 
CALEDONIA,  AND  NEW  ZEALAND 

III.  AUSTRALIA   AND   TASMANIA 

IV.  CELEBES,    BORNEO,    JAVA,     SUMATRA, 
PHILIPPINES,  MALAY  PENINSULA 

V.     SIAM,  ANAM,  CAMBODIA,  BURMA 
VI.     CHINA  AND  MONGOLIA 

VII.  JAPAN,    THE     HAIRY    AINU,    KOREA, 
FORMOSA,     LIU-KIU     ISLANDS,     AND 
TIBET  

VIII.  THE  ANDAMAN  ISLANDS. — THE  VED- 
DAS    OF    CEYLON. — THE    ABORIGINAL 
RACES    OP    INDIA:    CENSUS   RETURNS 
OP  POPULATION  :   CLASSIFICATION   OF 
RACES  :      THE      ARYAN      INVASION  : 
CASTE  :       KOLS,       GONDS,       TODAS, 
KHONDS,    ETC 

IX.  INDIA  (continued)  :  WOLF  -  REARED 
CHILDREN,  KASHMIRIS,  PARSIS, 
KHASIS:  RELIGION  IN  INDIA:  ARYAN 
THEOLOGY,  LITERATURE,  ETC. — 
AFGHANISTAN  AND  BALUCHISTAN 


PAGE 

i 


25 

49 

73 

97 
121 

145 


169 


193 


X.    TURKESTAN,    BOKHARA,  SIBERIA,  AND 

PERSIA  .     217 


XL     ARABIA,      SYRIA,     PALESTINE,     ASIA 

MINOR,    AND  ARMENIA        .        .         .241 

XII.  AFRICA:  INTRODUCTORY — THE  PYGMY 
OR  NEGRILLO  RACES — THE  PEOPLE 
OF  MADAGASCAR  . 


XIII.  THE      NEGRO     IN     GENERAL  —  THE 
BANTU    NEGROES         .... 

XIV.  THE      BANTU      OF      EASTERN      AND 
WESTERN   AFRICA        .... 

XV.  THE  EQUATORIAL  AND  NILOTIC 
NEGROES 

XVI.  THE  SOUDANESE  AND  GUINEA 
NEGROES,  AND  THE  ABYSSINIAN 
AND  ETHIOPIC  GROUPS  .  .'  ;  . 

XVII.  THE  HAMITIC  AND  SEMITIC  RACES 
OF  NORTH  AFRICA 


XVIII.    EUROPE:     RUSSIA,     CAUCASIA,     FIN- 
*LAND,    LAPLAND,    NORWAY,    SWEDEN, 
AND  ICELAND  .     409 


XIX. 


XX. 


GREECE  AND  ISLES,  TURKEY, 
BULGARIA,  ROUMANIA,  SERVIA, 
MONTENEGRO,  BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA, 
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  THE  GYPSIES 


XXI.     DENMARK,         BELGIUM,        HOLLAND, 


GREAT    BRITAIN     AND    IRELAND 


XXII. 
XXIII. 
XXIV. 


CENTRAL       AND       SOUTH 
(INCLUDING   MEXICO)   . 


265 


289 


313 


337 


361 


433 


GERMANY,        SWITZERLAND,       ITALY, 
FRANCE,    SPAIN   AND   PORTUGAL         .     457 


481 


ARCTIC  AMERICA  AND  GREENLAND  .  505 
NORTH  AMERICA  ....  529 
AMERICA 


553 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS   AND  MAPS. 


PAGE 

A  Swazi  warrior  .  .  .  .  i 

Krao ii,iii 

Julia  Pastrana v 

Map  showing  distribution  of  the 

races  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  vi,  vii 
A  man  of  Fiji,  with  necklace  of 

cachalot  teeth  ....  viii 

A  war-dance,  Fiji  ....  1 

A  grass  house,  Fiji  ....  2 

A  woman  of  Fiji  .  .  .  .  3 

Natives  making  fire,  Fiji  .  .  4 

A  man  of  Fiji 5 

A  quiet  game  of  spellicans  (Vava, 

Tonga  Islands)  ....  6 

The  king  of  the  Tonga  Islands  .  7 
Group  of  Tonga  men  on  board 

H.M.S.  Challenger  ...  8 

A  woman  of  the  Tonga  Islands  9,  11 

A  girl  of  the  Tonga  Islands  .  .  10 
Tanu,  a  Samoan  chief,  with  head- 
dress and  necklace  of  cachalot 

teeth 12 

A  Samoan  girl  .  .  .  .  13,  14 
Talolo,  the  late  R.  L.  Stevenson's 

favourite  cook  ....  15 
Three  Samoan  belles  .  .  .16 

Agirlof  Tahiti (proflleand  full-face)  17 

AmanofTahiti(full-faceand  profile)  17 
Royal  family  of  Vahitai,  Taouata 

(the  Marquesas  Islands)  .  .  18 

A  group  of  natives,  Hawaii  .  .  19 

A  young  girl,  Hawaii  ...  20 

A  fisherman,  Hawaii  .  .  21,  23 

A  woman  of  Hawaii  ...  22 

A  man  with  calabashes,  Hawaii  .  24 
Three  New  Guinea  girls  .  .  .25 

Youngmenof  Siar,  East  NewGuinea  26 
Dobo,  or  tree-house  for  unmarried 

women  .....  27 

Two  New  Guinea  boys  .  .  28 
Pile-dwellings,  Koitapu,  at  low 

water  ......  29 

Two  Arfak  men         ....  30 

Man  of  New  Britain  .  .  .31 
Woman  of  New  Britain  .  .  .31 

Woman  of  the  Admiralty  Islands  .  32 

Men  of  New  Britain  ...  33 

A  New  Ireland  maiden  ...  34 

Men  of  New  Ireland,  with  spears  .  35 

Men  of  New  Ireland, in  battle-array  35 
Women  of  Port  Adam,  Solomon 

Islands 36 

AnativeoftheSolomonIslands,with 

large  ring  in  the  lobe  of  his  ear  37 

A  man  of  the  Solomon  Islands  .  38 

A  woman  of  the  Solomon  Islands  .  39 
Women  at  Mota  Island,  New 

Hebrides 40 

A  group  of  natives,  Pentecost 

Island 41 

A  Maori  girl  and  child  ...  42 

A  Maori  woman  ....  43 

A  Maori  girl 44 

Pataragurai,  a  Maori  chief  .  .  45 

A  Maori  man  and  his  wife  .  .  46 

Porotlti,  a  Maori  chief  ...  47 

A  family  group  of  Maoris  .  .  48 

Natives  making  a  canoe  ...  49 

A  native  of  Prince  of  Wales  Island  50 
A  gin  of  the  Workii  tribe,  Gilbert 

River 51 

Natives  of  River  Endeavour,  North 

Queensland         .        .   52,  53,  54,  62 


Native  girls  of   River  Endeavour, 

North  Queensland  ...  53 
A  native  warrior,  Prince  of  Wales 

Island 55 

A  native  of  Tweed  River  .  .  56 
An  old  man  of  the  Arunta  tribe  .  57 
Natives  in  outrigger,  River  En- 
deavour, North  Queensland  .  58 
A  group  of  the  Arunta  tribe  .  .  59 
Unchichera  of  Imanda  ...  59 
A  man  of  the  Workii  tribe,  Gilbert 

River 60,  61 

A  native,  with  wife  and  mother  .  63 
River  landscape,  with  hut  .  .  64 
A  group  of  native  Australians  .  65 
Women  in  mourning— their  bodies 

coated  with  white  clay  .  .  66 
William  Lanney  ....  67 
"  Truganina,"  William  Lanney's 

wife 68 

A  native  of  Tasmania  ...  69 
A  young  man  of  Tasmania  .  .  70 
A  group  of  Tasmanians  .  .  71,  72 
A  woman  of  Celebes  ...  72 
Sakarang  Dyas  ....  73 
Dya  women  and  children  .  .  74 
Sarebas  Dya  women  ...  75 
A  Kanowit  chief  ....  76 
A  man  of  Java  .  .  .  .  77,  79 
Java  women  78 

A  Java  woman  .....       79 

Two  Java  women 80 

Battas 81,  82 

Batta  warriors 83 

A  group  of  Malays  ....  84 
Igorotte  tattooing  .  .  .  .85 
A  Negrito  man,  with  spear  .  .  86 
A  Negrito  woman  ....  87 
A  Moro  Indian  girl  ....  88 
A  Moro  Indian  ....  89 

Two  Negritos,  with  sumpitan  .  90 
A  group  of  Negritos  .  .  91,  93,  94 
A  Negrito  man,  with  spear  .  .  92 
Two  Negrito  women  .  .  .  92 
Negrito  women  ...  95,  96 
A  Siamese  gentleman  ...  97 

A  Shan  man 98 

A  family  group  ....  99 
A  Buddhist  priest  .  .  .  .100 
A  royal  priest,  Siam  .  .  .101 
Siamese  street-singers  .  .  .102 
A  typical  Siamese  nobleman  and 

family 103 

A  young  couple  (Khas)  .  .  .104 
A  Siamese  prince  ....  105 
A  group  of  Lao  people  .  .  .106 
Burmese  dancing-girls  .  .  107 

A  Burmese  native,  with  tattooedlegs    108 
A  hairy  family  of  Mandalay  .         .     109 
Drawing  of  a  girl  two  years  old, 
with  thick  hair  on  neck,  back, 
and  shoulders     .        .        .        .110 
Julia  Pastrana,  the  hairy  woman 

of  Mexico 110 

Dacoits  in  prison  .  .  .  .111 
"  Shwe  Maong,"  founder  of  the 

hairy  family  of  Asia  .  .112 
"  Andrian,"  a  Russian  hairy  man 

over  fifty-five  years  old  .  .112 
Three  Burmese  girls  .  .  .113 
A  Burmese  princess  .  .  .114 
A  Burmese  lily  .  .  .  .115 
A  Shan  beauty 116 


PAGE 
117 
118 
119 
120 
120 
121 
122 
123 


A  Shan-Talok  woman 
Kachins — boy  and  girl 
Karen  women    ..... 
Out  for  an  afternoon  drive 
A  pair  of  dwarfs  from  Burma 
Chinese  coolies  in  rain-coats    . 
A  Chinese  barber      .... 
A  Chinese  lady  of  high  rank   . 
A  Chinese  woman,  with   nail-pro- 
tector (on  left  hand) 
Opium-smokers         .... 
AChiiiesewomanwithdeformedfoot 
Female  musicians  and   singers  of 
Foo-chow     ..... 
A  Chinese  garden  party   . 
A  woman  of  Manchuria  . 
Map  of  Asia,  showing  distribution 

of  races 

Chinese  taking  tea    .... 
A  Chinese  nurse  and  child 
Two  Chinese  mandarins  . 
A  woman  of  Shanghai      . 
A   Chinese   family  group  of  three 
generations          .... 
A  Chinese  fortune-teller  . 
Chinese  mandarins,  Canton     . 
Chinese  husband  and  wife 
A  Chinese  mother,  with  nurse  and 

children 

A  Chinese  bride,  with  veil  of  beads 
A  family  group  of  Mongols,  Kuldja     141 
A  group  of  Mongols  .         .         .142 

Chinese  soldiers  of  Kuldja      .        .     143 
Khan  Wang,  a  Mongol  of  Kuldja   . 
Three  Japanese  girls 
A  Japanese  vegetable-pedlar   . 
The  Japanese  mode  of  conveyance 
Two  fair  daughters  of  Japan  . 
An   elaborately  tattooed  Japanese 
man      ...... 

An  elaborate  Japanese  head-dress  . 

Professional  Japanese  wrestlers 

A  village  scene  in  Japan 

A  daughter  of  Japan 

A  Japanese  doctor  and  patient 

A  wayside  resting-place  in  Japan  . 

Two  Ainu  men  in  dug-out  canoe    . 

Ainu  man  and  wife  .        .        . 

Three  Ainu  women  .... 

Three  Ainu  men        .... 

Ainu  children    ..... 

A  Korean  coolie         .... 

Korean  secretaries  of  state 
A  group  of  Tibetans 
Women  and  girl  of  Ladak 
Buddhist    priests     at    Leh,     with 
copper   trumpets,   drums,   and 
cymbals       .....     165 

Tibetan  dancers        .        .        .         .166 

Two  Lamas  of  Nud  .        .        .        .167 

Tibetan  women          .        .        .        .168 

A  group  of  Andamanese  .        .     169 

The  chief  of  a  tribe  living  in  the 
vicinity  of  Port  Blair,  and  his 

wife 170 

Andamanese  shooting  fish       .        .     171 
A  group  of  Andamanese.     Method 

of  shooting  turtle  .  .  .172 
A  Vedda  woman  .  .  .  .173 
A  Vedda  man,  with  leaf  girdle  .  174 
Two  Veddas,  with  bows  .  .  .175 
A  Vedda  man  (profile)  .  .  .176 
A  Vedda  man  (full-face)  .  .  177 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS    AND    MAPS 


PAGE 

Devil-dancers,  Ceylon  .  .178,  182 
A  group  of  Tamil  girls  .  .  .179 
A  Tamil  man  of  Ceylon  (mixed  type)  180 
A  Tamil  girl  .  •  .  .  .  .181 
A  group  of  Kols  .  .  .  .183 
Two  Irulas  (from  the  left),  two 

Badagas,  two  Todas,  two  Kotas, 

and  two  Kurumbas  .  .  .184 
A  group  of  Kol  girls  .  .  .185 
Two  Toda  girls  .  .  .  .186 

A  Toda  home  (or  maud)  .  .  187 

Kota  women  making  pots  .  .  188 
Kurumbas,  with  house  .  .  .  189 
Iscards,  soldiers  of  the  Maharajah 

of  Kashmir  .  .  .  .190 
Nautch-girls  of  Kashmir  .  .  191 

A  Pars!  girl 192 

Paharis  (hill  women)  .  .  .193 
Dancing-men  at  Mongknem  dance, 

Khasia  Hills  .  .  .  .194 
Dancing-girls  at  Mongknem  dance, 

Khasia  Hills  .  .  .  .194 

A  Lepcha 195 

A  Brahman  at  prayers  .  .  .  196 
Native  princes  of  Orissa  .  .  .197 
Nagas  in  full  dress  .  ...  198 
A  religious  mendicant  .  .  .199 

A  fakir 200 

A  native  Indian  lady  .  .  .201 
A  fakir's  home  .  .  .  .202 

A  fakir  and  family  in  dwelling- 
place  under  the  White  Rock, 

iiearDowlie  .  .  .  .203 
The  late  Maharajah  of  Holkar  .  204 
A  Hindu  sacrifice  .  .  .  .205 
A  Cormghi  woman,  Madras  .  .  206 
AMarwari  .  .  .  .  .207 
An  Ajruir  Mohammedan  .  .  207 

A  Delhi  Mohammedan  ...  207 

A  Multani 207 

A  Madras! 207 

A  Brahman 207 

A  Brahman  priest  ....  207 

A  fakir 207 

A  Bhatia 207 

An  executioner  of  Rewa  .  .  208 

An  Indian  prince  who  attended  the 

Queen's  Jubilee,  1897  .  .  209 
A  native  from  the  Afghan-Baluch 

frontier 210 

Natives  from  the  Afghan-Baluch 

frontier 211 

An  Afghan  woman  and  child  .  212 

Brahuis  of  Afghanistan  .  .  .  213 

Afridis 214 

Chiefs  of  Baluchistan  .  .  215,  216 

A  Turkoman 217 

A  Kara-Kirghiz  woman  .  .  .  218 
A  Kirghiz  man  of  Tashkend  .  .  219 
A  Kirghiz  man,  district  of  Serni- 

retchensk 219 

A  Kara-Kirghiz,  district  of  Semi- 

retchensk 219 

An  Usbeg  man,  district  of  Zaraf- 

shan 219 

An  Usbeg  woman,  district  of  Zaraf- 

shan 219 

A  Tajik  man  of  Tashkend  .  .  219 
A  Tajik  woman  of  Tashkend  .  .  219 
A  Tarancha  man,  district  of  Kulja  219 
A  Tarancha  woman,  district  of 

Kulja 219 

A  Kirghiz  bed  ....  220 

Turkoman  women  ....  221 
A  Dungan  woman,  province  of 

Kulja 222 

Dungans  of  Kulja  .  .  .  .223 
A  group  of  Sarts  and  Dungans, 

with  cart  (or  arbas)  .  .  .224 
Durani  mendicants  ....  225 
A  Kalmuk  woman  on  camel  .  .  226 
A  Kalmuk  woman  (profile)  .  .  227 
A  Kalmuk  woman  (full-face)  .  227 
Kalmuk  children  ....  227 
A  Kalmuk  man  .  .  .  .227 
Women  of  Turkestan  .  228 


233,  236 


240 


248 


851 
252 
258 

254 
255 


PAGE 

A  group  of  Samoyedes      .        .        .229 

A  Samoyede  man  and  woman         .    230 

A  group  of  Golds       .         .         .     231,  234 

A  Giliak  woman 

A  Giliak  man     . 

Two  Tunguses  . 

Two  Golds 

Tunguses,  with  reindeer  . 

A  group  of  Giliaks    .... 

A  Persian  horse  soldier    . 

A  Persian  dervish     .... 

A    group    of    dervishes    (religious 
mendicants) ,  Persia  . 

Prisonersand  jailors  in  prison-yard, 

Nar-ha-band,  Persia  .        .        .241 

Persian  lady  in  indoor  costume       .     242 

Persian  ladies  in  outdoor  costume  243-4 

Arab  children 245 

An  Arab  mother  and  child      .        .    246 

A  Bedouin 247 

An  Arab  family         .... 

An  Arab  sheikh         .... 

A  bride  of  Bethlehem 

Women  of  Bethlehem 

A  native  guide,  Palestine 

Jewish  lepers,  Palestine  . 

Nestorian   teachers   and   scholars, 
Armenia 

Three  Turks 

A    group    of    teachers,    American 

Missionary  Society,  Armenia  .     256 

Butter-making  in  goat-skin  churns 

(Nestorians,  Armenia)       .         .     257 

Armenians    water-carrying    (Nes- 
torians)         258 

Armenian  merchants  and  wives     .     259 

An    English     missionary,    with    his 
native  teachers  ....    260 

Armenian    orphans   rescued   from 
the  massacres     .... 

A/Kurdish  mountain  chief   (head 
of  tribe) 

Kurdish    mountain    brigands,   Ar- 
menia   

People  of  Transcaucasia  . 

A  Bushman        ..... 

A  Bushman  (profile  and  full-face) 

Map   showing   the   distribution  of 
African  races      .... 

A  pygmy  woman  (front  view) 

A  pygmy  woman  (side  view)  . 

An  Akka  girl  (front  view) 

An  Akka  girl  (side  view) 

An  Akka  girl     . 

Bushman  boys 273 

A  Malagasi  girl         .        .        .        .274 

Water-carriers,  Antananarivo        .    275 

Various    types     of     hair-dressing, 
Antananarivo     .... 

Hova  women  selling  rice,  Antana- 
narivo district    .... 

Pounding  rice,  Antananari%-o 

Malagasi  men 

A  Hova  in  a  pilanjana      . 

A  group  of  Hova        .... 

Malagasi  women  pounding  rice 

A  native  dance,  Madagascar  . 

A  Griqua  family        .... 

A  Fingo  man 

Wife  of  a  Kaffir  chief       . 

A  Kaffir  induna         .... 

Kaffir  women 

Ova-Herero  women  . 


2iil 
202 

288 
234 
235 

x';;i; 

267 
.  268 
.  268 
.  269 
.  270 
•"•  ~  i  •>"•> 


276 


.     278 

279 

.280 

.     281 

.  282 
.  283 
.284 

285 
.286 
.287 

288 
289,  290 


A  Swazi  girl       .....  291 

A  Kaffir  woman,  Natal     .         .         .  292 

Three  Kaffirs     .....  293 
Khama,  chief  of  the  Bamangwato 

Bechuanas  .....  294 
Khama'  s  brother       .        .        .        .295 

A  Cape  Kaffir    .....  296 

Kaffirs  in  fighting-costume      .        .  287 
A  Kaffir  wedding-party    .        .        .298 

Zulu  women  grinding  corn      .        .  299 

Three  Zulu  girls         ....  300 

ABasutogirl     .....  301 

Two  Zulu  girls  .....  302 


PAGE 

Usipebu's  wives,  Zululand  .  .  303 
A  Zulu  witch-doctor  .  .  .304 
A  Zulu  girl  .  .  .  .  .  305 
Matabili  warriors  ....  306 
Mashonas  bartering  .  .  .  307 
Two  Mashona  men  .  .  .  .308 
Chief  Umgabe  and  his  followers, 

Mashonaland  ....  309 
TwoNyasalandmenandtheirwives  310 
Natives  of  East  Central  Africa  in 

full-dress  costume  .  .  .311 
Confirmationcandidates,Nyasaland  312 
Waganda  scholars  ....  313 
Nubian  police,  Uganda  .  .  .314 
A  Uganda  man  and  woman  in 

native  style  .  .  .  .315 
Wakwafi  men  of  Kavirondo  .  .  316 
A  group  of  Suk  ....  317 
Y'suk  warrior,  Karaniojo  .  .  318 
Wabeni  school-girls  .  .  .  319 
Natives  of  Lumbwa  ....  320 
Wateita  boys,  East  Africa  .  .  321 
An  Elgon  chief  .  .  .  .322 

Unyoro  chiefs 323 

An  Unyoro  girl  (full-face)  .  .  324 
An  Unyoro  girl  (profile)  .  .  325 

A  princess  of  Unyoro  (full-face)  .  326 
A  princess  of  Unyoro  (profile)  .  327 
A  Monbuttu  negress  .  .  .328 

Congo  natives 329 

Two  Congo  natives  .  .  .  .330 
A  Congo  woman  ....  331 
A  Congo  man  and  woman  .  .  332 
A  group  of  Congo  men  .  .  .  333 
A  Congo  native,  with  primitive 

stringed  instrument  .  .  .  334 
A  Congo  warrior  and  his  wife  .  335 
A  group  of  Congo  natives  dressed 

for  a  war-dance .  .  .  .336 
A  Congo  man  in  native  canoe  .  337 
Treaty-making,  Kikuyu  .  .  .338 
Wyaki  and  his  brother  chief, 

Kikuyu 339 

A  group  of  Niam-niam  natives  .  340 
Niam-niam  warriors  .  .  .341 
A  Niam-niam  girl  .  .  .  .  342 
A  Niam-niam  witch-doctor  .  .  343 
A  Niam-niam  native  .  .  .344 
Typical  women  of  the  Equatorial 

region 345 

Women  and  children  of  Equatorial 

Africa 346 

Liberatedslavesfrom  Central  Africa  347 
A  Central  African  chief  and  his 

wives 348 

A  Monfu  woman  ....  349 
A  Dinka  girl  (full-face)  .  .  .350 
A  Dinka  girl  (profile)  .  .  .351 

A  Shilluk  girl 352 

A  Shilluk  man 353 

Fajclu  men  and  woman  .  .  .  354 
A  Bari  girl  .  .  .  .  .355 
A  Bari  woman  (side  view)  .  .  356 
A  Bari  woman  (front  view)  .  .  357 

A  Madi  man 358 

Madi  women 359 

A   Lango  chief,  showing  peculiar 

head-dress 360 

The  Mandingan  baJenjeh,  or  native 

piano 361 

Native  carriers,  Upper  Mendi  .  362 
An  Upper  Mendi  princess  .  .  363 
An  Upper  Mendi  chief  .  .  .363 
An  Upper  Mendi  chief  in  war 

costume 364 

Amazons  of  Dahomey  .  .  .  365 
Natives  of  the  Niger  Delta  .  .  366 
A  native  of  the  Oil  Rivers,  Niger 

Coast  Protectorate  .  .  .367 
A  Dahomeyan  baby  .  .  .  .368 
Dahomeyan  Amazons  .  .  .  3| 
A  Dahomeyan  warrior  .  .  .  370 
A  Dahomeyan  man  .  .  .  .371 
A  Yoruba  woman  ....  372 
A  Yoruba  man  .  .  .  .373 

Somali  children          .         .         .        .374 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS    AND    MAPS 


Somali        .... 

A  Somali  man    . 

A  Somali  man  and  his  wife 

An  Abyssinian  girl   . 

A  native  of  Abyssinia 

A  group  of  Abyssinians   . 


PAGE 
.  375 
.  376 
.  377 
.  378 
.  379 
.  380 
381,  383 
.382 
.384 
385 
386 


A  Haussa  woman      .        .        .        . 

A  group  of  Haussa   .        .        .        . 

A  group  of  Tuaregs,  South  Algeria 
A  Tuareg  woman      .        .        .        . 

A  Tuareg  man  .....    387 

Mixed  type,  Berber  and  Negro  race, 

Sahara          .....    388 

A  Fellah  woman       .        .        .        .389 

Two  Nubian  girls      .        .        .        .390 

Two  Nubian  dancing-girls       .        .391 
A  Nubian  dancing-woman       .        .    392 
An  Uled-Nail  (Algerian  type)         .    393 
An  Uled-Nail  woman,  Biskra       394,  393 
An  Uled-Nail  woman        .        .        .395 
Uled-Nails  and  two  Negro  girls      .    397 
A  Kabyle  man  .....     398 

A  Kabyle  woman      .        .        .     399,  402 
Two  Kabyle  women,  Algeria  .        .    403 
Arab  children  at  play       .     '  -.        .    401 
Kabyle  children        .        .        .        .403 

Street  minstrels,  Cairo     .        .        .404 
An  Algerian  Moorish  girl        .        .    405 
A  Moorish  lady         .        .        .        .406 

An  Arab  man    .....    407 

An  Arab  camp  .....    408 

A  Russian  mendicant       .        .        .409 
A  Russian  coachman        .        .        -410 
A  group  of  Russian  women     .        .     411 
A  sergeant  in  the  Russian  army     .     412 
A  Russian  school      .        .        .        .413 

Tartars       ......     414 

A  Russian  nurse        ....    415 

Two  dancers,  Little  Russia     .        .    416 
A  Russian  bride  of  the  better  class    417 
Map  based  (by  permission)  on  Pro- 
fessor Keane's  language  map  of 
Europe    in   "Stanford's    Com- 
pendium of  Geography  "  .        .     418 
Russian  peasant  in  costume    .        .    419 
A  Georgian  woman,  Caucasia          .    420 
Caucasian  soldiers    .        .        .        .421 

A  Finlander       .....    422 

A  Lapp  child  on  reindeer         .        .     423 
A  Mountain  Lapp     .        .        .        .    424 

A  family  of  Lapps    ....    425 

A  Lapp  woman          ....    426 

A  Norwegian  girl  in  bridal  dress    .     427 
A  Hardanger  girl      ....     428 

Hardanger  peasant  women      .        .     429 
A  Swedish  girl  in  bridal  dress         .     430 
A  Tellemarken  peasant    .        .        .431 
An  Iceland  woman   .        .        .  432 

A  Greek  girl  in  national  costume  .     433 
A  Greek  girl      .....     434 

A  Greek  soldier         .        .        .        .435 

A  Turk        ......     436 

A  Turkish  pedlar      .        .        .        .437 

A  Rumanian  bride    ....    438 

A  Rumanian  dairy-maid  .        .        .438 
A  Montenegrin  .....    439 

National  dance  of  Montenegro  at 
the  present  day  :  dancing  the 
ftoro     ......     440 

Bosnian  falconers     ....     441 

A  Bosnian  belle         ....    442 

A  native  of  Bosnia    .        .        .     443,  445 
A  Bosnian  soldier     ....     444 

A  Bohemian  woman          .        .        .446 
Chekhs       .....     447,  443 

A  Wend  (front  and  back  view)      .    448 
Wend  woman  in  full  dress      .        .    448 
Germans  of  South  Austria       .        .     449 
Hungarian  peasants         .        .         .450 
A  South  Austrian  peasant       .        .    450 
A  Tyrolese  girl  .....    451 

A  Hungarian  woman  from  Szirok  .     452 


PAGE 

A  Hungarian 453 

A  pure  Gypsy,  Alsace  (profile)  .  454 
A  pure  Gypsy,  Alsace  (full-face)  .  455 
A  Bohemian  Gypsy  girl  .  .  .  456 
A  little  German  boy  ...  457 
A  German  lady  .  .  .  .458 
Three  Swiss  girls  ....  459. 

A  Swiss  man 460 

A  young  woman  of  Bern  .  .  461 
A  Swiss  girl  in  bridardress  .  .  462 
An  Italian  man  .  .  .  .463 
The  tarantellc  in  Naples  .  .  .464 
An  Italian  shepherdess  .  .  .465 
An  Italian  monk  .  .  .  .466 
Young  women  of  Valence  .  .  467 
An  Italian  peasant-girl  in  her 

wedding-dress  .  .  .  .468 
A  fisher-woman  of  Portel  .  .  469 
An  old  Frenchwoman  .  .  .  470 
Two  French  peasants  .  .  .  471 
A  French  fisherman  .  .  '  .  472 

A  Brittany  boy 473 

A  Gypsy  of  Granada  .  .  474,  476 
A  Spanish  fandango,  Granada  .  475 

A  Spanish  lady 477 

Two  Portuguese  boys  .  .  .478 
A  Portuguese  woman  .  .479,  480 

A  Danish  bride 481 

A  Danish  couple  .  .  .  .482 
A  Danish  fisher-girl  .  .  .483 
A  Belgian  peasant  woman  and  her 

draught-dogs  .  .  .  .484 
A  native  of  the  Ardennes  .  .  485 
A  Belgian  man  and  his  wife, 

Ardennes 486 

A  family  group  of  Marken  people  487 
A  Dutch  married  woman,  North 

Holland 488 

A  Dutch  man,  Volendam  .  .  489 
A  Dutch  peasant  woman,  showing 

head-dress 490 

A  maid-of-all-work,  Holland  .  .  490 
A  Derbyshire  yeoman  .  .  .  491 
A  Lowestoft  smacksman  .  .  492 
A  type  of  English  beauty  .  .  493 
An  English  girl  .  .  .  .494 
A  group  of  fishermen,  Devonshire  .  495 

A  city  waif 496 

A  Welsh  woman  at  her  spinning- 
wheel  .        .        .     •  .        .        .497 
A  Newhaven  fishwife       .        .        .498 
In  a  Shetland  crofter's  home  .        .     499 
An  old  Scot  salt        .        .        .        .500 
Two  old  men  of  Skye        .        .        .501 
A  native  of  Mourne  ....    502 
An  old  Irishwoman  at  her  spinning- 
wheel  503 

An  Irish  peasant-girl  .  .  .504 
A  type  of  Irish  beauty  .  .  .504 
Greenland  Eskimo  in  the  snow  .  505 
A  party  of  Greenland  Eskimo  .  506 
Eskimo,  with  their  sleighs  and 

kayak 507 

An  Eskimo  man  ....  508 
An  Eskimo  woman  ....  509 
A  pair  of  Eskimo  boys  .  .  .  510 
Heads  of  three  Eskimo  children  .  511 
Eskimo  and  sledge  .  .  .  .512 
A  Greenland  Eskimo  grandmother  513 
An  Eskimo  belle  .  .  .  .514 
Distribution  of  Eskimo  and  North 

American  Indians  .  .  .  515 
An  Eskimo  youth  .  .  .  .516 
An  Eskimo  girl  and  child  .  .  517 
A  party  of  Eskimo,  with  their  tent 

of  seal-skin  and  bear-skin  .  518 
A  North  American  Indian  in  full 

dress 519 

A  group  of  North  American  Indians  520 
A  North  American  brave  .  .  521 
North  American  Indian  chiefs, 

with  their  wives  and  children  .  522 
A  Chippewa  Indian  .  .  .523 


PAGE 

Ma-gi-ga-bow  (chief)         .        .        .523 
A  Chippewa  chief      .        .        .        .523 
"  Cut-nose,"  a  Sioux  criminal          .  523 
A   North  American   Indian    (pro- 
file)         524 

A    North  American  Indian    (full- 
face),  with  pipe-tomahawk       .  525 
A    North    American     chief,    with 

feather  head-dress      .        .        .  526 
A  Dakota-Siouan  chief,  thirty-eight 
years  of  age,   with  pipe-toma- 
hawk      527 

A   North   American    Indian  chief 

(profile) 528 

A  North  American  Indian,  show- 
ing mocassins     ....  529 
An  American  Indian  and  his  wife  530 
Indian  "  sun  dance  "  (the  making  of 

a.  brave) 531 

A  group  of  North  American  Indians 

in  full  dress        ....  532 

North  American  Indians  dressing  .  533 

An  Indian  chief  and  his  squaws     .  533 

An  Indian  hunter,  with  wapiti  skull  534 

I  North  American  Indians  prepared 

for  a  journey       ....  535 
An   Indian    tent    in    winter,    with 

squaw  carrying  papoose  (child)  536 

A  woman  of  Kiawa  ....  537 
A  North  American  Indian  smoking 

tomahawk-pipe  ....  538 

Indian  squaw  and  papoose  (child)  .  539 

An  aged  Indian  woman    .        .        .  540 

A  group  of  Mic-mac  Indians    .        .  541 

A  Dakota-Siouan  squaw  .        .        .  542 

I  A  group  of  North  American  Indians  543 

i  A    Mandan    Indian    in    European 

dress 544 

i  North  American  Indians  in  camp  545 

i  Guanajuato  water-carriers,  Mexico  546 

j  A  Hopi  bride 547 

i  Guatuso   women   and  child,  Costa 

Rica 548 

A  Carib  woman  of  Dutch  Guiana, 

with  leg-bands    ....  549 
1  A  Carib  or  Ackawoi  woman  (pro- 
file), with  spikes  in  lower  lip 

and  ears       .....  550 
A  Carib  or  Ackawoi  woman  (full- 
face),  with  spikes  in  lower  lip 

and  ears 551 

A  Carib  man 552 

A  Carib  woman         ....  553 
A    Peruvian    Indian,    with    orna- 
ments   in    the    lobes    of    the 

ears 554 

Natives  of  Peru  ....  555 
A  Gaucho  of  La  Plata  .  .  .556 
Map  showing  distribution  of  South 

American  Indians      .        .        .557 
A  group  of  Sanapana  men  of  the 

Paraguayan  Chaco     .        .        .  558 
A  group  of    Sanapana  women   of 

the  Paraguayan  Chaco      .        .  559 
A  party  of  Botocudos        .        .        .560 

War  Indians  of  the  Lengua  tribe  561 

Lenguas  of  the  Paraguayan  Chaco  562 

An  encampment  of  Lengua  Indians  563 
A  group  of  Lengua  children, 

Paraguayan  Chaco     .        .        .  564 

Araucanians  and  their  children      .  565 

An  Araucanian  man         .        .        .  566 

A  witch-doctor  of  Araucania  .        .  567 

Civilised  Araucanians      .        .        .  568 

A  Chilian  native  and  his  wives       .  569 

An  Araucanian  beauty  .  .  .  570 
A  Tehuelche  woman  and  children, 

dressed  in  guanaco  robes  .        .  571 

Mapuche  natives  of  Araucania       .  572 

A  Fuegian  man         ....  573 

A  Tehuelche  man      .        .                 .  574 

A  Fuegian  woman     ....  575 

Fuegians 576 


INTRODUCTION. 

/7  £  <?  t> 

RECENT  years  have  witnessed  a  great  growth  of  interest  among  the  people  of  this  country 
in  the  more  distant  races  of  mankind.  Until  lately  our  relations  with  the  rest  of  the 
world  seemed  so  remote 
and  accidental  that  colonial 
expansion  was  a  fact  for 
which  statesmen  were  al- 
most apologetic.  Our  views 
of  foreign  politics  rarely 
extended  beyond  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe,  and  we 
were  content  for  the  most 
part  that  they  should  be 
directed,  without  criticism, 
by  the  experts  in  Downing 
Street.  The  attention  of 
the  nation  was  mainly 
directed  to  internal  affairs, 
local  government,  taxation, 
and  the  electorate.  A  great 
change  has  now  taken 
place.  The  rise  of  new, 
and  the  decline  of  old, 
powers;  the  stress  of  com- 
mercial competition  ;  the 
extraordinary  expansion  of 
Greater  Britain,  and  the 
"  pin  -pricks  "  inflicted 
upon  some  of  its  long 
limbs  by  Continental  rivals; 
the  improved  facilities  for 
travel;  the  books  of  certain 
popular  writers;  and,  above 

all,    the    growth    of    the    im-  pholo  by  the  Tramnst  Monastery,  Mariann  Hill,  Natal. 

perial  spirit  called  forth  by  A  SWAZI  WARRIOR. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


the  celebration  of  the  Diamond  Jubilee  of  the  Empress-Queen, — have  awakened  Englishmen 
and  Englishwomen  to  the  fact  that  their  island-home  is  but  a  small  piece  of  the  world, 
or  even  of  the  British  Empire.  We  have  begun  to  realise  that  the  most  promising  fields 
of  enterprise  for  our  ever-increasing  community,  the  most  profitable  markets  for  our  wares, 
may  some  day  be  found  in  places  which  are  now  the  darkest  corners  of  the  earth;  and 
that  the  half-clothed  savage,  just  emerging  from  the  brute  condition,  is  a  human  being 
capable  of  being  educated,  in  the  near  future,  into  a  customer  for  British  trade  and  a 
contributor  to  the  world's  wealth.  The  confidence  of  the  British  merchant,  nursed  in 
a  period  of  prolonged  peace,  has  been  rudely  shaken  by  the  successful  rivalry  of  other 

nations,  which  attach  more  im- 
portance to  commercial  educa- 
tion. It  is  now  perceived  that, 
if  we  are  to  maintain  a  great 
Imperial  Policy  and  a  lasting 
supremacy  in  trade,  it  must  be 
through  a  better  understanding 
of  the  needs  and  characteristics 
of  the  various  peoples  with 
whom  we  are  brought  in  contact. 
It  is  of  the  highest  im- 
portance that  the  British  public, 
and  especially  those  who  are 
responsible  for  moulding  its 
opinions  and  directing  its  affairs, 
should  possess  the  widest  possible 
knowledge  of  the  peoples  and 
races  included  in  its  great  and 
worldwide  empire.  Sad  mistakes 
have  resulted  from  our  ignorance, 
mistakes  for  which  we  have 
suffered  severely.  Everything 
should  be  done  to  popularise 
the  study  of  Ethnology;  but, 
unfortunately,  we  are  in  this 
respect  as  yet  far  behind  some 
other  nations. 

A  work  like  the  present 
is,  therefore,  urgently  called  for 
at  the  present  moment.  What 
is  required  is  not  a  scientific 


<fc  U.  Downey. 


"Krao,"  whose  photograph  we  here  reproduce,  was  a  very  hairy  female  child,  from  the 
forest  of  Laos,  Burma,  about  six  or  seven  years  of  age,  and  was  exhibited  in  1883  and 
in  1887  at  the  Royal  Aquarium,  London.  The  opinion  was  widely  entertained  at  the 
time  that  Krao  possessed  ape-like  peculiarities  inherited  from  wild  parents,  and 
therefore  might  be  regarded  as  a  "  Missing  Link."  The  newspapers  helped  to  spread 


. 

this  mistaken  view.  The  report  by  Dr.  J.  G.  Garson,  published  in  the  Jliit:.-.-// 
Medical  Journal,  January  6,  1883,  showed  conclusively  that  extreme  hairiness  was 
almost  the  only  peculiarity  exhibited  in  Krao.  Her  parents  did  not  possess  this 
feature.  Fourteen  or  more  cases  of  extreme  hairiness  are  on  record  ;  they  may 
possibly  be  cases  of  "Atavism,"  or  reversion  to  a  low  ape-like  ancestor  of  the  human 
race,  but  this  view  cannot  yet  be  demonstrated.  In  some  cases,  as  in  that  of  "Julia 
Pastrana  "  (p.  v),  the  arrangement  of  the  teeth  is  abnormal. 


INTRODUCTION 


in 


treatise  on  Ethnology — a  science  as  yet  in 
its  infancy,  and  presenting  many  problems 
that  can  only  be  solved  by  long  and  patient 
accumulation  of  facts — but  a  thoroughly 
popular  book,  presenting  information  in  a 
concise  and  readable  form.  The  subject 
is  so  vast  that  it  has  been  found  necessary 
to  exclude  very  much  matter  which,  how- 
ever interesting  to  the  student,  did  not 
appear  to  help  the  end  in  view.  Hence 
the  text  which  accompanies  the  large  series 
of  illustrations  here  presented  deals  chiefly 
with  the  physical  features  of  the  races  of 
mankind,  their  clothing,  ornaments,  food, 
dwellings,  weapons,  habits,  and  customs, 
especially  those  connected  with  birth, 
marriage,  and  death;  their  modes  of 
thought  and  mental  characteristics;  not 
omitting  their  games,  sports,  and  pastimes. 
A  few  statistics  of  population,  race,  and 
religion  have  been  added  for  the  sake  of 
completeness. 

It   is   not    possible    to   enumerate   here 

the  many  valuable  papers  in  geographical  and  other  journals  to  which  the  writers  are 
largely  indebted,  nor  to  the  many  important  books  of  travel  by  which  our  knowledge  has 
been  so  vastly  increased  of  late  years.  The  works  of  Lieutenant  Peary,  Dr.  Sven  Hedin, 
Dr.  Gregory,  Sir  Harry  Johnston,  Stanley,  Nansen,  Younghusband,  and  others,  have  been  of 
the  greatest  service  to  ethnologists,  and  the  writers  have  freely  drawn  upon  the  latest  and 
fullest  sources  of  information. 

With  a  view  to  simplicity,  and  the  avoidance  of  the  difficult  problems  of  race-relation- 
ship, the  various  peoples  described  are  treated  from  a  geographical  standpoint.  To  a  large 
extent  the  geographical  arrangement  agrees  with  the  purely  ethnographical  classification. 
Nearly  all  races,  however,  are  mixed,  there  being  few  pure  types  anywhere.  All  the  ingenious 
schemes  of  classification  as  yet  put  forward  by  ethnologists  are  provisional  and  temporary; 
but  it  is  convenient  to  retain  the  use  of  such  familiar  terms  as  Caucasian,  Mongolian, 
Polynesian,  Negro,  Negrito,  and  Papuan. 

In  the  illustration  of  this  subject  an  entirely  new  departure  has  been  taken,  and  the 
author  and  publishers  claim  to  have  produced  a  work  which  is  unique.  Pictures,  or  wood- 
engravings,  may  sometimes  be  prettier,  but  they  can  never  be  so  absolutely  trustworthy  as  the 
products  of  the  camera,  which  show  us  the  natives  of  other  climes  as  they  live  in  their 


iv  THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 

natural  surroundings,  their  dress  (or  want  of  it),  their  weapons,  dwellings,  and  the  tattoo-marks 
on  their  bodies,  or  the  flesh-wounds  and  scars  of  which  Australians — and  some  negroes — seem 
so  proud.  Such  a  collection  of  photographs  from  life — carefully  selected  so  as  to  avoid  half- 
castes,  or  very  mixed  types,  as  far  as  it  is  possible — can  never  be  entirely  superseded,  even 
when  artists  of  the  camera  discover  their  philosopher's  stone — photography  in  colour.  Many 
standard  works  on  Ethnology  are  disfigured  by  engravings  which  are  far  from  accurate,  and  in 
some  cases  are  nothing  less  than  parodies  of  the  people  they  profess  to  portray.  Even  when 
a  woodcut  is  prepared  directly  "from  a  photograph,"  it  cannot  always  be  trusted.  However 
excellent  the  photograph  may  be,  the  engraver  often  entirely  fails  to  interpret  it.  He  has 
not  studied  anatomy,  or  the  different  types  of  human  physiognomy,  and  to  him  there  is  very 
little  difference  between  a  Polynesian  or  a  Papuan  and  an  African  negro.  If  the  illustrations 
in  so  admirable  and  scientific  a  work  as  KatzePs  "History  of  Mankind"  sometimes  fail  to 
convey  a  true  idea  of  the  type,  some  others,  well  known  to  the  public,  are  far  worse.  The 
photographs  here  reproduced  have  been  selected  from  a  large  collection  gathered  together 
with  much  labour  by  the  author  from  professional  and  amateur  photographers  at  home  and 
abroad.  Full  acknowledgment  of  his  obligations  to  many  friends  in  connection  with  this  work 
cannot  be  made  here.  In  order  to  get  as  many  good  photographs  as  possible,  he  has  visited 
the  ethnographical  collections  of  Paris,  Leyden,  Hamburg,  Dresden,  and  Leipzig,  besides  Oxford 
and  Cambridge.  The  ethnologists  of  these  universities  have  rendered  much  valuable  assistance. 

The  plan  adopted  is  to  deal  first  with  Polynesia  and  Australia,  passing  on  to  the  East 
Indies  and  Malay  Peninsula.  This  affords  a  convenient  bridge  to  the  Continent  of  Asia, 
each  country  being  dealt  with  in  turn.  The  races  of  Africa  will  next  be  described;  then  we 
pass  on  to  Europe,  and  finally  to  North  and  South  America. 

The  writer  has,  in  previous  works,  expressed  his  acceptance  of  the  doctrine  of  Evolution, 
and  he  can  see  no  sufficient  reason  for  refusing  to  believe  that  Man  has  ascended  from  some 
humbler  type;  more  than  this  he  cannot  say,  because  scientific  problems  would  be  out 
of  place  in  the  present  work. 

In  conclusion,  the  writer  is  greatly  indebted  to  his  friends  Dr.  J.  W.  Gregory  and 
Mr.  Lydekker  for  the  very  kind  way  in  which  they  have  assisted  him  to  carry  out  his  task. 
Dr.  Gregory,  whose  wide  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  derived  both  from  his  own  travels  and 
from  his  extensive  study  of  the  subject,  has  written  the  six  chapters  dealing  with  the  African 
races;  whilst  Mr.  Lydekker,  who  is  so  well  known  by  his  writings  and  researches  on  Natural 
History,  Palaeontology,  and  Anthropology,  has  kindly  contributed  the  chapters  dealing  with  the 
races  of  North,  Central,  and  South  America. 

H.  N.  HUTCHINSON. 


Straiyht-haired,  light-brown  Race. 

(Malays,  pure  or  mixed  with  Chinese,  Japanese, 

and  Indians.) 
Crisp-haired,  dark-brown  Race. 

(Melanesians,  Papuans,  and  Negritos.) 
•  -  — .  Wa  cy-haired,  brown  Race. 

(Separate,  or  mixed  with  the  two  above  named  ; 

Eiist  Malays,  so-called  Alfurs,  Polynesians,  and 

Australians.) 


S.-HK  HACilS  OH1  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN. 


Photo  by  Josiah  Martin,  Auckland,  Xew  Zealand. 

A   MAN   OF   FIJI,   WITH    NECKLACE   OF   CACHALOT  TEETH, 
viil 


Pkoto  bij  Henry  King'] 


[George  Street,  Sydney. 


A    WAR-DANCE,    FIJI. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

FIJI  ISLANDS,  POLYNESIANS,  POLYNESIAN  RELIGION,  TONGA  OR  FRIENDLY 
ISLANDS,  SAMOA,  HERVEY  ISLANDS,  SOCIETY  ISLANDS,  P1TCAIRN 
ISLAND,  AND  SANDWICH  ISLANDS. 


FIJI  ISLANDS. 

THE  inhabitants  of  Fiji — a  group  of  more  than  two  hundred  islands  in  the  South  Pacific — are 
properly  classified  as  Papuans;  but  since  they  form  a  sort  of  link  between  the  Papuans  and 
the  Polynesians,  it  is  convenient  to  describe  them  first  before  treating  of  their  neighbours 
on  the  east  and  west.  They  have  greatly  declined  in  numbers  since  white  men  brought  them 
the  vices  and  the  diseases  of  civilisation.  In  1859  the  population  of  the  islands  was  esti- 
mated at  200,000;  and  in  1897,  122,000.  Of  this  last  number  about  100,000  were  Fijians, 
and  2,300  Polynesians.  The  people  are  dark-coloured,  frizzly-haired,  tall,  and  muscular; 
altogether  a  decidedly  fine  race.  Some  of  them  exceed  a  height  of  six  feet.  Their  com- 
plexion varies  from  dark  brown  to  the  chocolate  colour  of  the  Papuan.  Their  features  are 
more  regular  than  those  of  the  latter.  They  use  the  bow  and  arrow,  and  also  make 
pottery,  both  of  which  arts  are  foreign  to  the  true  Polynesian. 

The  men  of  Fiji  devote  a  great  deal  of  time  and  attention  to  dressing  their  hair.  Nearly 
every  chief  has  a  hairdresser,  who  operates  upon  him  every  day,  sometimes  for  several  hours. 
The  reader  will  gather  from  our  illustrations  some  idea  of  the  effect  produced.  The  hair  is 
naturally  strong  and  somewhat  wiry,  and  therefore  capable  of  retaining  its  position  at  a 
distance  of  more  than  six  inches  from  the  head.  Its  frizzly  nature  is  due  to  each  individual 
hair  being  elliptical  instead  of  circular  in  cross  section,  and  thus  tending  to  twist.  As  might 
be  expected,  much  ingenuity  is  expended  in  devising  different  methods  of  dressing  the  hair. 
It  is  dyed  in  various  colours — black,  red  (in  several  shades),  and  ashy  white.  A  chief  sometimes 

i 


2  THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 

protects  his  enormous  mop  of  Lair  by  a  kind  of  turban,  made  of  very  delicate  bark-cloth 
(masi),  nearly  as  thin  as  gauze.  This  bark-cloth  is  also  used  for  dress,  being  wrapped  round 
the  body  so  as  to  form  a  loin-cloth,  and  to  fall  behind  in  a  kind  of  sash  and  in  front  like 
an  apron.  The  women  wear  a  broad  band  of  beautifully  variegated  braidwork,  also  made  of 
bark-fibre.  This  garment,  known  as  the  liku,  is  fastened  round  the  waist  with  a  fringe 
hanging  from  the  lower  edge  at  least  three  inches.  Young  girls  wear  very  narrow  fringe, 
and  at  the  time  of  marriage  this  is  increased  in  depth  until  it  reaches  half-way  down  to 
the  knees,  and  it  entirely  surrounds  the  body.  On  becoming  a  mother,  the  woman  wears  an 
apron  reaching  down  to  the  knees,  or  rather  lower.  Formerly  paint  was  largely  used  for 
decorating  the  person,  the  favourite  colours  being  black,  white,  and  red.  Some  of  the  dandies 
favoured  very  piquant  devices.  They  are  all  fond  of  wearing  flowers,  weaving  them  into 


Photo  by  I/ennj  Xing] 


A    GRASS    HOUSE,    FIJI. 


strings,  and  passing  them  like  belts  over  the  shoulder  and  under  the  arm;  also  as  chaplets 
for  the  head.  Tattooing  was  until  recently  practised,  but  almost  exclusively  by  the  women, 
whose  fringe,  or  apron,  hid  most  of  it,  except  when  the  fingers  or  the  corners  of  the  mouth 
were  tattooed.  In  the  matter  of  ornaments  the  Fijians  are  not  very  lavish,  and  do  not  load 
themselves  as  some  of  the  Papuan  tribes  do.  The  frontispiece  shows  a  man  wearing  a 
necklet  of  the  curved  teeth  of  the  cachalot,  or  sperm  whale,  more  or  less  cut  into  a  square 
shape  at  the  base,  and  probably  derived  from  young  whales.  In  other  cases,  however,  bits 
of  tortoise-shell,  dogs'  teeth,  or  the  jaws  of  the  bat  are  used.  A  large  breast-ornament  of 
pearl-shell  is  sometimes  worn.  The  ear-ornaments  are  often  of  great  size,  so  that  it  is  necessary 
to  stretch  the  lobe  of  the  ear  round  the  ornament,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Solomon  Islanders. 
The  ornament  itself  may  be  a  white  cowry,  a  cylinder,  disk,  or  large  ring— some  of  the 
rings  being  as  much  as  ten  inches  in  diameter.  The  natives  often  used  to  mark  their  bodies 


' 


lL 


Pholo  by  Josiah  Martin} 


[Auckland,  Ne 


A    WOMAN    OF    FIJI. 
3 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


with  scars,  as  the  Australians  do 
to  this  day.  Finger- rings,  armlets, 
and  anklets  are  still  worn,  but  the 
old  native  customs  in  dress  are 
rapidly  dying  out. 

The  Fijians  have  an  abundant 
supply  of  food.  From  the  sea  they 
obtain  plenty  of  fish,  turtles  (of 
which  they  are  very  fond),  crabs, 
and  shell-fish.  The  soil  produces 
yams,  tomatoes,  bananas,  cocoanuts, 
and  bread-fruit  in  considerable 
quantity.  An  intoxicating  drink 
is  produced  from  the  root  of  a  tree 
of  the  pepper  tribe  (Piper  methys- 
ticum).  They  are  very  fond  of 
feasting  and  giving  entertainments 
on  a  large  scale,  and  on  these 
occasions  their  manners  are  ex- 
tremely polite,  and  the  utmost 
good-feeling  prevails.  Everything 
is  done  according  to  a  strict  code 
of  etiquette;  indeed,  there  is  no 
part  of  the  world  where  etiquette 
is  carried  to  a  greater  extent,  or 
where  it  is  more  intimately  inter- 
woven with  every  action  of  ordinary 
life. 

There  are  various  modes  of 
salutation,  which  differ  according  to 
circumstances.  When  two  people  of  equal  rank  meet  early  in  the  day,  the  correct  phrase 
is  "Awake!"  or  "You  are  awake!"  Whereas  in  the  evening  they  will  say,  "Sleep!"  or 
"Go  to  sleep!"  When  the  master  of  a  house  receives  a  visitor  from  a  distance,  he  claps  his 
hands  three  or  four  times,  exclaiming,  "Come  with  peace  from  vour  home."  In  offering  a 
present  they  modestly  remark,  "  I  have  nothing  to  offer  you  but  this  gift  as  an  expression 
of  my  love  for  your  children."  Every  kind  of  present  must  be  offered  in  some  set  form 
of  words,  varying  according  to  the  nature  of  the  gift. 

Although  the  Fijians  may  be  said  to  be  in  many  respects  a  civilised  people,  yet  within 
recent  times  they  displayed  a  most  reckless  disregard  of  the  sanctity  of  human  life,  and 
cannibalism  was  practised  on  a  very  large  scale.  Almost  incredible  cruelties  took  place  in 
connection  with  their  cannibal  feasts,  and  even  natives  who  professed  to  be  converted 
to  Christianity  were  liable  at  times  to  break  out  and  revert  to  the  old  customs.  King 
Thakombau,  for  example,  became  nominally  a  Christian;  but  on  .visiting  in  his  war-canoe 
a  district ,  under  his  rule,  he  was  invited  to  walk  through  a  double  row  of  living  victims 
— men,  women,  and  children  of  all  ages — suspended  by  their  feet,  and  placed  there  so 
that  he  might  choose  those  which  were  most  to  his  fancy.  The  king,  notwithstanding 
his  recent  profession  of  Christianity,  fell  in  with  the  local  customs,  and  condescended  to 
accept  this  horrible  offering,  touching  with  his  club  those  unfortunate  wretches  whom 
he  thus  marked  out  for  slaughter.  Cannibalism  was  so  ingrained  in  their  nature  that 
some  individuals  proudly  boasted  of  the  number  of  human  bodies  they  had  consumed, 
and  one  chief,  who  had  "beaten  the  record,"  as  we  should  say,  was  held  in  great  respect, 
and  received  the  nickname  of  the  "  Turtle-pond,"  thus  comparing  him  with  a  pond  in  which 


Photo  by  JoAah  Martin 


[Auckland,  New  Zealand. 


NATIVES    MAKING    FIRE.    FIJI. 


Photo  by  Josiuk  Martin] 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


many  turtles  are  kept.  This  man  adopted  a  curious  way  of  keeping  his  record.  Every 
time  he  consumed  a  human  body  he  set  up  a  stone,  and  it  is  said  that  when  he  died 
his  son  counted  no  fewer  than  900  stones.  Human  flesh  was  considered  the  greatest  luxury, 
and  friends  and  relatives  were  occasionally  sacrificed.  At  great  feasts  sometimes  as  many 
as  twenty  human  bodies  were  cooked.  Slaves  were  kept  for  the  purpose;  but  when  a 
chief  demanded  "long  pig"  nobody  was  safe,  because  his  attendants  would  rush  out  and 
kill  the  first  person  they  happened  to  meet.  The  women  were  very  seldom  permitted  to 
partake  of  human  flesh. 

The  reader  is  probably  aware  that  the  practice  of  cannibalism  is  not  based  simply  on  the 
appetite  for  human  flesh,  and  that  the  idea  underlying  this  revolting  custom,  in  all  parts  of 
the  world  in  which  it  has  been  practised,  is  that  when  a  man  eats  another  man  he  assimilates 
the  victim's  qualities,  it  may  be  physical  strength,  courage,  cleverness,  or  cunning.  Hence  it 
was  considered  highly  desirable  to  catch  a  brave  enemy  and  to  eat  him,  in  order  to  partake 
of  his  bravery. 

It  is  not  surprising  to  learn  that  years  ago  human  sacrifices  were  very  frequent, 
and  often  on  a  large  scale.  Every  important  event  was  attended  by  one  or  more 
sacrifices.  When  a  chief  built  a  war-canoe,  numbers  of  slaves  and  others  were  sacrificed 
in*  order  to  bring  "good  luck."  A  big  canoe  belonging  to  a  chief  was  dragged  along 
to  the  sea  over  the  bodies  of  a  number  of  men  lying  side  by  side  to  act  as  rollers.  Of 
course  they  were  killed  by  the  weight  of  the  canoe;  and  afterwards  their  bodies  Avere 
baked  and  eaten.  Like  "Koko,"  in  Mr.  Gilbert's  delightful  Japanese  opera,  some  chiefs 
kept  "a  little  list"  secretly  of  people  to  whom  they  were  not  particularly  attached;  and 
when  the  occasion  demanded  "long  pig,"  some  of  these  black-list  men  were  sacrificed 
without  any  warning. 

The  Fijians,   like  many  other  primitive  people,  have  no  fear  of  death.     In  heathen  times, 


Photo  by  Thou.  Andrew} 


A    QUIET    GAME    OF    SPELLICANS    (VAVA,    TONGA    ISLANDS). 


FIJI    ISLANDS 


Photo  bij  Joniali  Marlin]  [Auckland,  New  Zealand. 

THE   KING   OF  THE   TONGA   ISLANDS. 


when  a  man  became  feeble  from  old  age, 
or  any  other  cause,  he  asked  his  sous 
to  strangle  him.  Indeed,  this  act  was 
considered  a  filial  duty.  To  be  strangled 
by  one's  children,  or  to  be  buried  alive 
by  them,  was  considered  a  highly  honour- 
able way  of  dying.  The  people  being 
of  a  really  affectionate  nature  were  un- 
willing to  see  their  parents  dragging 
out  a  useless  existence;  death  was  con- 
sidered preferable  to  infirmity,  for  these 
people  firmly  believed  that  their  condition 
after  death  in  the  spirit  world  would  be 
entirely  dependent  on  their  state  at 
death.  Therefore,  however  strange  and 
cruel  such  a  practice  may  appear  when 
judged  by  our  own  standards,  it  may  be 
considered  as  simply  the  logical  con- 
sequence of  firmly  rooted  ideas.  In 
judging  of  the  manners  and  customs  of 
alien  races,  it  is  only  fair  to  make  great 
allowances  for  their  idiosyncrasies,  and  to 
remember  always  that  their  standpoint 
is  generally  very  different  from  ours. 

In     old    days,    when    a    chief    died, 

many  of  his  slaves  and  favourite  wives  were  strangled,  in  order  that  they  might  still  continue 
to  attend  him  in  the  next  life.  One  might  have  supposed  that  the  women  would  have 
objected  to  this  practice;  but  so  far  from  that  being  the  case,  they  died  quite  willingly,  in 
the  belief  that  they  were  securing  for  themselves  a  happy  and  honourable  life  in  the  next 
world.  Custom  demanded  that  they  should  not  survive  their  husbands,  and  any  woman 
refusing  to  die  would  only  have  found  herself  condemned  to  a  miserable  life  of  neglect 
and  insult.  Such  practices  were  common  in  Britain  in  prehistoric  times,  as  is  proved  by 
the  researches  of  archaeologists  who  have  explored  British  barrows;  and  the  reader  is  probably 
aware  that  the  same  ideas  prevailed  not  long  ago  in  India,  when  suttee  was  practised,  and 
women  offered  themselves  willingly,  often  lighting  the  funeral  pyre  with  their  own  hands. 
Again,  in  China,  women  frequently  preferred  death  to  widowhood. 

A  missionary  was  once  invited  by  a  young  man  of  Fiji  to  attend  the  funeral  of  his 
mother,  and  great  was  his  surprise  on  joining  the  funeral  procession  to  see  the  old  lady  taking 
part  in  it,  and  cheerfully  walking  to  her  grave.  It  is  related  in  "  Erskine's  Journal"  that  a 
certain  young  man,  on  becoming  very  thin  and  weak  from  illness,  expressed  a  desire  to  be 
buried,  because  he  was  afraid  the  girls  would  laugh  at  him  and  call  him  a  skeleton.  Accord- 
ingly his  father  buried  him  alive;  but  when  the  young  man  requested  to  be  first  strangled, 
he  was  scolded  and  told  to  be  quiet,  and  be  buried  like  other  people,  and  give  no  more 
trouble. 

The  Fijian  women  are  simply  the  domestic  slaves  of  their  husbands,  and  they  perform  a 
great  deal  of  hard  labour.  The  daughter  of  a  chief  is  usually  betrothed  early  in  life.  Should 
her  intended  husband  refuse  to  carry  out  the  contract,  it  is  considered  a  great  insult,  and 
becomes  the  cause  of  a  serious  quarrel,  sometimes  leading  to  blows.  Should  the  young  man 
die  before  the  girl  is  grown  up,  then  his  next  brother  takes  his  place,  and  the  child  is 
betrothed  to  him.  If  a  young  man  wishes  to  marry  a  certain  girl,  he  must  obtain  her  father's 
permission.  This  having  been  granted,  he  makes  her  a  small  present.  Shortly  afterwards  he 
sends  to  her  house  some  food  prepared  by  himself;  this  is  the  ceremony  known  as  "Warming." 


8 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


For  four  days  the  girl  enjoys 
a  brief  holiday,  sitting  at 
home  arrayed  in  her  best, 
and  painted  with  turmeric 
and  oil;  she  is  then  taken 
to  the  sea  by  some  married 
women,  and  all  set  to  work 
to  catch  fish.  As  soon  as 
the  cooking  of  what  they 
have  caught  is  finished,  the 
young  man  is  sent  for,  and 
the  betrothed  couple  par- 
take of  a  meal  together. 
Some  little  interval  follows, 
during  which  the  future 
husband  is  busily  occupied 
in  building  the  new  home. 
On  the  completion  of  the 
house  a  great  feast  takes 
place.  On  the  bride's  de- 
parture from  home  her 
friends  and  relatives  make 
a  great  fuss,  all  showing 
their  affection  by  kissing 
her. 

The  Fijiaus  are  by 
nature  very  superstitious.  A 
Frenchman  who  visited  them 
some  years  ago  relates  that  the  natives  of  a  certain  island  in  the  group  evinced  great 
emotion  the  first  time  that  they  saw  a  European  smoking  a  cigar.  Great  was  the 
excitement,  and  people  were  hastily  summoned  by  their  chiefs  to  come  and  see  this 
extraordinary  spectacle.  To  them  the  white  man  Avith  his  cigar  was  a  god,  burning  internally! 
There  was  no  room  for  doubt,  because  smoke  came  out  of  his  mouth! 

The  people  have  of  late  years  abandoned  all  their  old  barbaric  customs.  This  great 
change  is  entirely  due  to  missionary  enterprise.  As  far  back  as  the  year  1835  the  Wesleyans 
established  a  mission  in  the  archipelago,  and  probably  there  are  few  places  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean  where  missionary  effort  has  been  more  successful,  or  its  fruits  more  visible.  Native 
teachers  and  ministers  are  trained  for  the  work.  In  1891  there  were  as  many  as  914 
Wesleyau  chapels,  with  a  large  number  of  native  teachers,  and  about  100,000  followers. 
The  Roman  Catholics  also  have  a  numerous  following,  and  twenty  European  Sisters  are 
engaged  in  teaching  the  girls.  The  children  nearly  all  attend  school.  The  Church  of 
England  has  two  churches,  one  in  Suva  and  one  in  Levuka.  The  islands  have  been  under 
British  rule  since  1874,  and  the  state  of  things  at  the  present  day  offers  a  marvellous  contrast 
to  the  pictures  drawn  by  the  earlier  travellers. 


GROUP    OF    TONGA    MEN 


H.M.S.  "CHALLENGER." 


Taken  during  the  Scientific  Expedition  of  1872-6.    Published  b>j  Horsburgh  &  Son,  Edin- 
burgh.     Government  Copyright. 


POLYNESIANS. 

PROCEEDING  eastwards  from  Fiji,  we  pass  over  the  boundary-line  that  separates  the  dark 
frizzly-haired  Papuans  from  the  brown  Polynesians,  who  inhabit  most  of  the  Pacific  islands. 
The .  Polynesians  are  certainly  of  a  distinct  race;  but  for  all  that  the  term  Polynesian  implies 
a  purely  arbitrary  division,  not  founded  upon  geographical  or  racial  distinctions.  Polynesia 


Photo  by  Josiah  Martin] 


[Auckland,  New  Zealand. 


A    WOMAN    OF    THE    TONGA    ISLANDS. 


JO 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


itself  is  not  a  distinct  unit.  The  people  who  inhabit  New  Zealand  belong  to  the  same  race. 
Although  the  Polynesians  are  all  of  one  stock,  and  speak  dialects  of  a  common  language,  yet 
they  are  far  from  being  unmixed.  However,  the  term  is  in  general  use,  and  has  been 
found  to  be  more  or  less  convenient.  The  Polynesians,  according  to  universal  testimony,  are 
one  of  the  very  finest  races  in  the  whole  world.  In  their  habits  they  are  clean  and  tidy, 
with  a  sense  of  order  and  neatness  never  found  among  barbarous  peoples.  The  reader  will 
perceive,  on  examining  our  illustrations,  that  the  type  of  face  shows  a  marked  approach  to 
that  of  the  European.  The  hair,  always  an  important  feature  in  determining  race,  is  dark 
brown  or  black,  smooth  and  curly,  and  quite  unlike  the  frizzly  hair  of  the  Papuan,  or  the 
perfectly  straight  black  hair  of  the  Malay.  As  a  rule  the  Polynesians  have  not  much  beard. 
In  stature  they  are  fully  equal  to  Europeans.  Unlike  the  Malay,  their  disposition  is  cheerful, 
and  they  are  fond  of  dancing,  singing,  and  all  kinds  of  amusements. 

One  of  their  games  resembles  draughts,  but  is  not  so  simple.  Perhaps  it  is  the  same 
game  as  that  which,  as  we  see  from  the  frescoes  on  temple  and  tomb,  was  played  ages  ago 
by  Egyptian  Pharaohs  and  their  wives.  The  board  has  238  squares,  divided  into  rows  of 
fourteen.  Another  game  is  to  hide  a  stone  in  a  piece  of  cloth  and  try  to  find  it  by 
hitting  with  a  stick;  here  betting  is  the  chief  excitement.  Cricket  has  been  introduced  by 
Englishmen,  and  the  late  Kobert  Louis  Stevenson  said  that  in  Samoa,  where  he  lived, 
cricket  matches  used  to  be  played  by  whole  villages,  some  hundreds  on  a  side,  so  that  a 
game  sometimes  lasted  for  weeks!  At  length  the  waste  of  time  and  cost  of  entertaining  the 
visitors  reached  such  a  pitch  that  the  chiefs  interfered.  Ball  games  are  very  popular.  In 

the  Hawaiian  game  called  Ma,  a  wheel- 
shaped  stone  (maika)  is  thrown  as  far 
as  possible;  and  players  have  been  known 
to  stake  all  their  property,  their  wives 
and  children,  their  arm-  and  leg-bones 
(after  death),  and  at  last  even  their  own 
persons,  on  one  throw.  Boys  and  girls 
get  up  races  among  themselves — not 
separately,  for  the  girls  can  run  as  well 
as  the  boys.  In  Tahiti  and  in  Hawaii 
surf-swimming  is  a  favourite  pastime. 
Children  have  toy-boats.  New  Zealanders 
are  very  fond  of  flying  kites.  Games 
with  the  fingers  also  are  common. 


POLYNESIAN   RELIGION. 

"ANIMISM,"  universal  animation,  or  the 
endowing  of  all  things  with  a  soul,  is 
the  foundation  of  all  Polynesian  religion. 
But  we  must  guard  against  misinter- 
preting the  words  "spirit"  and  "soul," 
as  the  terms  are  used  here.  "  Soul " 
generally  means  "life,"  a  sense  also 
found  in  the  Hebrew  Psalms.  In  Tahiti, 
the  term  for  "spirit"  extends  to  the 
squeaking  of  rats,  or  the  talk  of  children 
in  their  sleep!  Everything  has  its  soul, 
be  it  a  tree,  a  stone,  an  implement,  or 
an  animal.  Thus  arose  the  primitive 


Photo  by  Mr.  J.  J.  Lifter,  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge. 
A    GIRL   OF   THE    TONGA    ISLANDS. 


POLYNESIAN    RELIGION 


1 1 


Pantheism  of  Oceanica.  Atua  indicates 
the  spiritual  in  its  widest  sense.  The 
word  may  be  used  more  generically,  as 
Mana  is  used  by  Solomon  Islanders.  In 
this  lower  sense  it  is  a  power  or  influence 
expressing  itself  in  any  kind  of  force  or 
superiority  which  a  man  may  possess. 
It  can  be  transferred  to  anything.  Spirits 
possess  this  coveted  influence,  whether 
they  be  the  souls  of  dead  people  or  of 
some  beings  of  a  higher  grade.  Tutelary 
spirits  (or  deities)  have  an  important 
place;  their  inspiration  is  desired  because 
they  are  supposed  to  have  learnt  much 
from  the  gods  of  the  upper  regions. 
Should  they  not  come  willingly  to 
man's  assistance,  they  must  be  con- 
strained by  prayers,  sacrifices,  and 
incantations.  But  Animism  often  de- 
generates into  pure  beast-worship.  Thus 
in  the  Mortlock  Islands  the  bastard 
mackerel  caranx  is  reverenced  as  the 
god  of  war. 

The  souls  of  old  departed  chiefs 
take  rank  as  gods,  to  be  invoked  by 
prayer  and  sacrifice.  As  living  men  on 
earth  are  divided  into  different  grades, 
so  are  spirits.  A  chief's  spirit  at  once 
takes  a  higher  place  than  that  of  an 
ordinary  person.  Some  say  chiefs  go  to 
the  stars,  while  others  wait  about  on 
the  earth.  Thus  we  see  how  gods  originate.  Heroic  men  are  deified.  The  chief  god  of  the 
Gilbert  Islanders  was  formerly  a  chief;  now  he  is  Hai,  living  above  the  clouds.  The 
legends  that  relate  to  the  origin  of  the  gods  show  that  they  were  once  men,  and  that 
all  religion  originated  by  a  slow  evolution  from  the  worship  of  ghosts.  This  is  the  view 
generally  held  by  anthropologists,  but  it  has  been  ably  controverted  by  Mr.  Andrew  Lang 
in  his  recent  work  on  "The  Making  of  Religion."  Some  spirits  never  were  human,  and  so 
take  at  once  a  higher  rank.  With  spiritual  beings  abounding  everywhere,  every  aspect  of 
nature  meets  with  a  ready  explanation,  and  thus  thousands  of  nature-gods  who  are  merely 
localised  spirits  come  into  existence.  A  score  or  so  of  them  rule  the  sea;  others  employ 
great  blue  sharks  to  execute  vengeance.  In  certain  places  sharks  are  fed  on  fish  and  pigs, 
until  they  get  into  the  habit  of  approaching  the  shore  at  certain  times;  and  then  the  deluded 
natives  maintain  that  the  fish  come  at  a  priest's  bidding.  Hiro,  a  famous  sea-god,  was 
originally  a  bold  and  ingenious  native  of  Raiatea,  Society  Islands,  and  until  Christianity 
replaced  paganism  his  skull  was  on  view. 

In  the  Gilbert  Islands  sacrifices  are  offered  on  one  stone  in  a  stone  circle.  Upright 
stones  are  worshipped  as  in  India.  The  megalithic  monuments  of  Europe  date  from  a  distant 
time,  when  our  ancestors  were  no  further  advanced  in  culture.  (See  "  Prehistoric  Man 
and  Beast.") 

In  some  parts  of  Polynesia  the  priest  adds  to  his  other  duties  that  of  the  healer,  or 
"medicine  man."  But  in  the  most  populous  districts,  as  in  New  Zealand,  a  separate  class  of 
priests  is  created  for  this  business,  which  is  chiefly  based  on  pure  sorcery.  One  of  the  chief 


Photo  by  Mr.  J.  J.  Lister,  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge. 
A   WOMAN   OF  THE   TONGA   ISLANDS. 


12 


THE    LIVING-  RACES    OF    MANKIND 


duties  of   the  healer  is  to   obtain   information   about   the  patient's  illness  from  some  god.      He 
puts  questions  to  the  deity,  and  is  supposed  to  receive  answers. 

It  is  perhaps  hardly  necessary  to  explain  that  all  over  the  world  with  primitive  people 
death,  sickness,  and  disease  are  believed  to  be  the  work  of  evil  spirits,  or  of  human  beings 
who  have  cast  a  spell  by  some  magical  art.  So  the  priest  endeavours  to  discover  the  criminal, 
and  "ordeals"  are  held.  In  Hawaii  the  suspected  person  must  hold  his  hands  over  water, 
and  if  the  water  trembles  in  the  vessel  while  the  priest  looks  at  him  his  guilt  is  supposed 
to  be  proved. 

Having  thus  indicated 
the  general  characteristics  of 
the  Polynesian,  we  will  pro- 
ceed to  visit  some  of  the 
islands  in  which  he  is  to  be 
found,  beginning  with  the 


TONGA     OR    FRIENDLY 
ISLANDS. 

LORD  GEORGE  CAMPBELL  says 
in  his  description  of  the 
voyage  of  H.M.S.  Challenger: 
"There  are  no  people  in  the 
world  who  strike  one  at  first 
so  much  as  these  Friendly 
Islanders  (or  people  of 
Tonga).  Their  clear,  light, 
copper-brown  coloured  skins, 
yellow  and  curly  hair,  good- 
humoured,  handsome  faces, 
their  tout  ensemble,  form  a 
novel  and  splendid  picture 
of  the  genus  homo ;  and  as 
far  as  physique  and  appear- 
ance go,  they  give  one 
certainly  the  impression  of 
being  a  superior  race  to 
ours."  Captain  Erskine, 
speaking  of  the  same  people, 
says:  "The  men  were  a  re- 
markably fine-looking  set  of 
people,  and  among  them 
were  several  six  feet  high, 
and  of  herculean  proportions. 
One  stout  fellow  attracted 
attention  as  soon  as  he 
crossed  the  gangway,  and  I 
found  that  his  arm  measured 
above  the  elbow  15J  inches, 
whilst  that  of  one  of  our 
forecastle  men,  probably  the 
stoutest  man  in  the  ship, 


Photo  by  Josiah  Martin}  [Auckland,  2fae  Zealand. 

TANII,    A    SAMOAN    CHIEF,    WITH    HEAD-DRESS    AND    NECKLACE    OF 

CACHALOT   TEETH. 


TONGA    OR    FRIENDLY    ISLANDS 


was  but  14  inches.  .  .  . 
The  manly  beauty  of 
the  young  men  is  very 
remarkable;  one  in  par- 
ticular, who  had  decked 
his  hair  with  the  flowers 
of  the  scarlet  hibiscus, 
might  have  sat  for  An- 
tinous.  Their  features 
are  often  beautiful, 
although  the  nose  is 
somewhat  flatter  than 
with  us;  but  this,  I 
believe,  is  done  by  the 
mothers  in  the  children's 
early  youth  as  an  im- 
provement to  their  ap- 
pearance." 

The  following  brief 
account  of  the  Tow-Tow, 
a  religious  festival  which 
was  extremely  popular 
before  the  conversion 
of  the  Tongans  to 
Christianity,  will  serve 
to  show  how  fond  the 
people  are  of  boxing, 
wrestling,  and  fighting, 
in  a  good-hnmoured 
way,  among  themselves. 
The  Tow-Tow  was  really 
a  special  form  of  thanks- 
giving to  the  god  of  the 
weather  for  ripening  the 
fruits.  It  began  early 
in  November,  when 
yams  are  ripe,  and  the 
proceedings  used  to  be 
continued  for  about 
three  months,  with  in- 
tervals of  about  ten  days. 

In  the  first  place,  the  people  collected  plenty  of  food,  yams,  plantains,  and  sugar-canes.  These 
they  piled  up  in  great  heaps.  The  priest  of  the  weather-god  sent  a  small  procession,  accom- 
panied by  a  girl  about  nine  years  old,  who  was  supposed  to  represent  the  wife  of  the  god. 
She  resided  at  the  temple  of  the  god,  and  presided  at  feasts,  or  at  Jcava -drinking  parties. 
The  men  were  dressed  in  mats,  with  green  leaves  tied  round  their  necks.  They  offered  up 
prayers  to  Alo-Alo,  asking  him  to  give  good  weather  for  their  crops.  Some  of  the  piles  of 
food  went  to  the  chief,  and  others  were  scrambled  for  as  soon  as  the  drums  were  beaten. 
Then  followed  a  regular  ''free  fight."  The  men  arranged  for  "sides,"  and  the  chiefs  joined 
in  the  game.  They  fought  with  great  pluck  and  determination,  but  always  observed  the 
rule  that  no  one  must  lose  his  temper.  It  was  all  done  in  perfect  good-humour. 

A   man   who   had   been   knocked   down   would   get   up   again,    smiling   blandly,    even   if   his 


Pltolo  by  Th 


[Apia,  Samoa. 


A    SAMOAX    GIRL. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


arm  were  broken.  Boxing  and  wrestling  matches  took  place  on  these  occasions,  but  with 
the  greatest  propriety  and  good-will.  After  each  battle  all  those  who  had  touched  a  chief 
came  to  be  formally  pardoned  for  the  offence  they  had  committed  in  touching  his  sacred 
person.  He  then,  very  good-naturedly,  received  them  one  by  one,  and  pardoned  them, 
even  if  his  nose  had  been  flattened  in  the  game.  It  must  have  been  strange  to  those 
who  punched  him  to  reflect  that  he  had  on  all  other  occasions  absolute  command  of  their 
own  lives. 

After  a  time  the  women  took  part  in  the  game,  laying  aside  their  usual  gentleness,  for 
which  they  are  quite  remarkable.  Captain  Cook,  when  he  visited  Tonga,  saw  girls  step  into 
the  ring  and  box  with  great  spirit.  Sometimes  their  elders  found  it  necessary  to  go  in 
and  part  the  combatants;  but  as  a  rule  those  who  were  beaten  yielded  gracefully.  On  one 
famous  occasion  about  1,500  women  engaged  on  each  side,  and  went  on  fighting  until  the 
king  ordered  them  to  cease,  when  it  was  discovered  that  some  had  sprained  ankles,  others 

broken  limbs. 

When  a  person  of 
some  importance  dies, 
his  or  her  body  is  washed 
and  oiled;  Avomen  keep 
watch  over  it.  After- 
wards the  relations  carry 
the  corpse  to  the  house 
for  burial,  and  lay  it 
there  in  its  clothes,  often 
in  a  little  chest  or  boat, 
depositing  at  the  same 
time  the  deceased's  most 
valued  possessions.  Then 
they  all  go  to  the  shore, 
singing  loudly  as  they 
walk  along,  make  baskets 
out  of  palm-leaves,  and 
pour  into  them  white 
sand,  wherewith  to  fill 
the  iipper  part  of  the 
grave.  The  male 
mourners  remain  for 
twenty  days  in  lightly 
built  huts  near  the  house 
of  mourning,  and  the 
women  within.  On  the 
twentieth  day  they  go 
back  to  the  shore,  and 
collect  basketfuls  of  black 
and  white  pebbles,  to 
spread  upon  the  floor  of 
the  house. 

The  Tongans,  when 
their  king,  Finnow,  died, 
made  great  lamentation. 
The  chiefs  and  others 
who  belonged  to  his 
A  SAMOAN  GIRL.  household  inflicted  very 


Photo  by  T/ios.  Andrew] 


[Apia,  Samoa. 


SAMOA 


A    GIKL    OF    TAHITI    (PROFILE). 


that  another  chief  was 
plotting  a  revolt  against 
the  superior  chief,  who 
was  a  great  tyrant  and 
very  cruel.  This  other 
chief  was  betrayed,  and 
condemned  to  death, 
together  with  all  his 
family.  He  had  a  beauti- 
ful daughter,  whom  this 
young  man  silently  loved, 
not  daring  to  declare  his 
passion,  for  she  was 
already  betrothed.  On 
finding  that  her  life  was 
in  danger,  he  came  and 
told  her  of  the  fatal 
decree,  offering  at  the 
same  time  to  save  her. 
So  he  took  the  girl 
and  they  both  got  into  the  cavern. 


A    GIKL    OF    TAHITI    (FULL- FACE). 


quietly  away  in  a  canoe,  and  they  both  got  into  the  cavern.  There  she  remained,  for  the 
affection  was  mutual,  and  the  young  husband  brought  her  mats  and  the  best  of  food.  Then 
he  planned  a  voyage  with  certain  other  families  to  Fiji;  but  the  expedition  was  kept  secret. 
On  making  their  start  one  of  his  friends  suggested  his  taking  with  him  a  wife,  to  which  he 
replied  that  he  would  find  one  on  the  way.  On  neariug  the  cave  he  suddenly  took  a  dive 
and  disappeared.  Soon  after  he  returned  with  his  lovely  young  wife,  greatly  to  the 
astonishment  of  his  friends,  who  took  her  for  a  sea-goddess. 

The  population  of  the  Tonga  group  is  estimated  at  about  17,500. 


SAMOA. 

THE  handsome   and    well-built   Samoan   men   generally   wear   only   an   apron  made  of  the  green 

leaves  of  the  Draccena 
tree;  but  their  ceremonial 
dress  consists  of  a  long 
flowing  robe.  They  tattoo 
their  bodies  from  the 
hips  to  the  knees.  They 
have  been  well  described 
as  a  nation  of  gentlemen; 
they  are  hospitable, 
courteous,  honest,  and 
affectionate.  The  late 
Robert  Louis  Stevenson 
was  very  much  attached 
to  them.  Our  illustration 
on  page  15  is  a  portrait 
of  Talolo,  his  favourite 
cook.  Their  stately  and 
quiet  manner  is  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  quick  and 
restless  Papuans  of  Fiji, 


A    MAN    OF    TAHITI    (FULL-FACE). 

From  photographs  taken  during  the  Scientific  Expedition  of  H.M.S.  "  Challenger,'"  1872-6. 

Government  Coin/right. 


A    MAN    OF   TAHITI    (PROFILE; . 

Published  by  Horsburgh  &  Son,  Edinburgh. 


i8 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


who  do  not  welcome  strangers,  and  used  to  eat  them.  The  population  is  estimated  at  about 
36,000,  including  300  Europeans.  Samoans,  when  they  come  on  board  an  English  vessel,  do 
not  steal  like  many  primitive  people;  for  honesty  is  one  of  their  many  virtues.  All  are 
nominally  Christians,  the  London  Missionary  Society  having  over  200  native  missionaries  in 
these  islands.  One  of  their  great  chiefs,  Malietoa  by  name,  went  on  board  an  English  vessel 
and  received  many  presents,  which  were  gladly  accepted.  The  following  extract  from  the 
journal  of  Mr.  Williams,  the  Avell-knowu  missionary,  will  serve  to  show  how  the  chief  and  his 
people  expressed  their  gratitude:  "At  the  close  of  this  important  and  interesting  interview, 
Malietoa  informed  his  people,  who  had  been  gazing  with  wonder  upon  the  novel  proceedings, 
that  a  large  quantity  of  valuable  property  had  been  given  to  him,  and  that  the  English 
chiefs,  to  whom  he  was  indebted  for  it,  would  want  something  to  eat  on  their  return;  ;  for,' 
said  he,  '  there  are  no  pigs  running  about  on  the  sea,  neither  is  there  any  bread-fruit  growing 
there.'  Upon  hearing  this,  the  whole  company  instantly  arose  and  scampered  away;  and  in 
about  an  hour  they  returned,  bringing  with  them  fifteen  pigs  of  various  sizes,  with  a  large 
quantity  of  bread-fruit,  yams,  and  other  vegetables,  the  whole  of  which  the  chief  presented  to  us." 

Women  accompany  their  husbands  to  the  wars  in  order  to  nurse  them  and  to  look 
after  the  commissariat.  They  have  been  seen  in  action  carrying  water  to  the  wounded, 
regardless  of  the  bullets  flying  thick  about  them.  Mr.  Pritchard  says:  "After  a  fight  the 
heads  of  the  slain  warriors  are  paraded  in  the  presence  of  the  assembled  chiefs  and  people, 
when  the  heroes  are  individually  thanked,  and  their  general  prowess  and  daring  publicly 
acknowledged.  The  excitement  of  the  successful  warrior  is  intense,  as  he  passes  before 
the  chiefs  with  his  bleeding  trophy,  capering  in  the  most  fantastic  evolutions,  with  blackened 
face  and  oiled  body,  throwing  his  club  high  in  the  air,  and  catching  it  behind  his  back  or 
between  his  legs;  sometimes  himself  carrying  his  dead  enemy's  head,  sometimes  dancing 
round  a  comrade  who  carries  it  for  him,  all  the  while  shouting  in  his  loudest  voice, 
'I  have  my  man,  I  have  my  man.'" 

In  these  islands  marriage  transactions  may  be  said  to  be  merely  speculations  in  fine 
mats,  of  which  a  bride's  dowry  consists.  These  are  handed  over  to  the  husband's  principal 


9f  the  Professor  of  AtMirojwlogy,  Ttie  Natural  History  Museum,  Paris. 

ROYAL    FAMILY    OF    VAHITAI,    TAOUATA    (THE    MARQUESAS    ISLANDS). 


SAMOA 


From  a  photograph  taken  daring  the  Scientific  Expedition  of  H.Jf.S.  "  Challenger"  187^-0.    Published  by  Hamburgh  &  Son,  Edinburgh. 

Government  Copyright. 
A   GROUP    OF   NATIVES,    HAWAII. 

friend  and  supporter,  or,  as  we  should  call  him,  "  the  best  man,"  who  arranges  the  match 
and  provides  the  feast.  Widows  follow  the  law  of  the  Levirate,  and  marry  the  husband's 
next  brother.  Each  bride  brings  with  her  one  or  two  handmaids,  who  may  become  secondary 
wives.  A  young  man  must  be  tattooed  before  he  can  marry.  Having  made  his  choice 
from  among  the  girls  of  the  island  he  lives  in,  he  sends  his  "  best  man"  to  negotiate  and 
make  all  the  arrangements.  The  young  woman  usually  has  no  choice,  but  is  obliged 
to  submit  to  the  decision  of  her  parents.  They,  on  their  part,  must  obtain  the  chief's 
consent.  For  a  long  time  before  the  wedding  takes  place  all  the  bride's  relations  help 
in  getting  her  dowry  of  fine  mats  and  native  cloths.  The  family  of  the  bridegroom  are 
likewise  actively  engaged  in  collecting  property  for  him,  such  as  cloth,  pigs,  canoes,  etc. 
When  the  contracting  parties  are  of  high  rank,  the  ceremony  takes  place  in  some  space 
devoted  to  public  ceremonies,  and  surrounded  by  bread-fruit  trees.  Here  the  guests  seat 
themselves  in  a  circle,  cross-legged,  glistening  with  oil  and  bedecked  with  plenty  of  beads 
and  flowers.  At  first  the  bride  remains  seated  in  a  house  somewhere  near,  from  which 
extends  a  carpet  of  native  cloth  reaching  to  the  place  of  assembly.  There  the  expectant 
bridegroom  is  seated  at  the  farther  end  of  the  long  carpet.  And  now,  all  being  ready, 
the  bride  comes  forth.  Needless  to  say,  she  is  gaily  bedecked  with  beads,  flowers,  and  shells, 
and  also  girt  round  the  waist  with  fine  mats,  some  of  which  form  a  flowing  train  behind. 
Her  maidens  follow,  all  bearing  mats.  These  they  spread  out  before  the  bridegroom,  and 
return  to  the  house  for  more.  This  is  repeated  a  good  many  times,  until,  in  some  cases, 
the  number  reaches  two  or  three  hundred.  All  these  constitute  the  dowry  collected  by 
her  relations.  The  bride  takes  her  seat  by  the  side  of  the  bridegroom,  and  presently  stands 
up  to  receive  the  applause  of  her  assembled  guests.  It  is  now  time  for  the  husband  to 
show  his  wealth,  which  he  does  with  considerable  display.  The  disposal  of  all  these  worldly 


20 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


goods  is  arranged  by  the  parents  or  brothers  on  both  sides.  It  has  already  been  stated  that 
Samoan  girls  usually  are  compelled  to  submit  to  the  arrangements  made  by  their  parents, 
but  elopements  are  not  unknown.  Should  a  chief  be  refused  by  the  parents,  he  sometimes 
abducts  their  daughter  or  persuades  her  to  run  away  with  him.  Then  his  companions 
gather  together  in  the  evening,  and  walk  through  the  settlement  singing  his  praises  and 
coupling  his  name  with  that  of  the  young  woman.  After  that  the  parents  generally  become 
reconciled  to  the  marriage,  and  give  their  consent. 

HERVEY   ISLANDS. 

THE  people  of  the  Hervey  or  Cook  Islands  have  a  remarkable  custom.  Here  they  are  not 
always  content  to  make  a  pathway  with  mats  for  the  bride  to  walk  along.  Should  she  be  the 
eldest  girl,  the  members  of  her  husband's  tribe  lie  down  flat  on  the  ground,  while  she  walks 
lightly  over  their  backs!  This  street  of  human  bodies,  called  in  the  native  tongue  ara 
tangata,  extends  from  the  bride's  house  to  that  of  the  bridegroom;  and  should  the  distance 
be  so  great  that  enough  people  cannot  be  found  to  make  the  pathway,  then  those  on  whom 
the  bride  has  already  stepped  get  up  and  quickly  run  on  ahead,  so  as  to  lie  down  again  and 
fill  up  the  rest  of  the  path.  The  ceremony  takes  place  a  few  days  after  the  wedding.  The 
husband,  on  the  day  of  the  marriage,  goes  through  a  similar  ceremony,  walking  on  the  backs 
of  the  people  of  the  tribe  to  which  his  wife  belongs.  On  that  occasion  the  bridegroom's 
friends  walk  on  each  side  of  the  human  pathway,  clapping  their  hands,  and  singing  songs 
in  his  praise,  not  omitting  to  mention  his  ancestors. 


THE   SOCIETY   ISLANDS. 

THE  Society  Islands,  eleven  in  number,  of  which  Tahiti  is  one,  form  the  chief  possession  of 
France  in  the  South  Seas.  The  French  have  also  acquired  the  Paumota  or  Lo\v  Archipelago, 
the  Marquesas,  the  Tubnai  or  Austral  Islands,  and  others.  New  Caledonia  and  the  Loyalty 
Islands  are  also  French  (see  map,  pages  vi  and  vii).  Discovered  in  1606,  Captain  Cook  gave 
the  islands  their  present  name,  and  he  observed  the  transit  of  Venus  in  1769  from  Tahiti. 
This  island  (the  Otaheite  of  Cook)  is  35  miles  long,  and  contains  about  11,000  people.  It 
presents  one  of  the  most  striking  examples  in  the  world  of  denuded  volcanic  rocks.  "  This 
terrestrial  Eden,"  says  Dr.  W.  H.  Guillemard,  "is  peopled  by  one  of  the  finest  races  in  the 
world,  whose  slightly  veiled,  or  even  fully  displayed,  symmetrical  proportions  did  not  fail  to 

excite  the  admiration  of  the  first  European  discoverers. 
Eecent  opinions,  however,  are  less  enthusiastic  on  the  subject, 
and  Von  Popp,  amongst  others,  remarks  that  if  we  now  look 
in  vain  for  the  gigantic  race  described  by  Captain  Cook, 
their  deterioration  is  due  partly,  at  least,  to  civilisation  and 
brandy;  notwithstanding  which,  the  natives  of  Tahiti  are 
still  a  fine,  well-proportioned  people,  tall  and  robust,  with 
dark-brown  complexions,  broad  noses,  slightly  protruding  lips, 
beautiful  teeth,  black  and  mostly  curling  hair,  but  with 
slightly  developed  beards.  With  Christianity  some  restraint 
has  been  introduced  amongst  the  islanders,  who  formerly 
indulged  in  unbridled  licentiousness.  At  present  we  must 
visit  the  remoter  villages  to  see,  in  their  original  forms,  the 
seductive  dances  of  the  native  women,  gaily  decked  with 
flowers.  But  all  this  will  soon  vanish  with  the  people 
themselves,  who,  like  the  Sandwich  Islanders,  are  decreasing 
with  alarming  rapidity.  The  idyllic  scenes  of  former  days 
have  already  mostly  disappeared  under  the  influence  of  the 


Plcol.0  by  H.  W.  Henskaw,  IRlo,  Hawaii. 
A    YOUNG   GIRT,,    HAWAII. 


Photo  bij  the  Davdj  Photo.  Co.} 


[Honolulu,  Hawaii. 


A    FISHERMAN,    HAWAII. 
21 


22 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Photo  by  the  Davey  Photo  Co.] 

A    WOMAN    OF    HAWAII. 


missions;  the  short  and  picturesque 
national  garb  has  been  lengthened  and 
rendered  unsightly;  the  Sunday  songs 
and  dances  have  been  prohibited;  and 
to  harsh  treatment,  intemperance, 
and  epidemics  thousands  have  fallen 
victims." 

According  to  a  French  traveller, 
the  people  make  up  for  the  prohibition 
of  their  old  national  songs  and  dances 
by  greatly  increased  drinking  habits. 
Delicious  oranges  flourish  abundantly 
here,  and  the  natives  have  now  been 
instructed  in  the  art  of  making  an 
intoxicating  drink  by  fermenting  orange 
juice.  Men,  women,  and  children  in- 
dulge in  excessive  drinking,  and  have 
become  greatly  degraded  by  this  habit. 
Our  illustrations  on  page  17,  excellent 
as  they  are,  can  hardly  do  justice  to 
these  handsome  people.  Their  forms 
used  to  be  quite  classic,  but  the  type 
has  deteriorated  of  late  years.  Even 
judged  by  European  standards,  a  Tahiti 
woman  would  be  counted  beautiful,  her 
large  full  eyes  and  rich  hair  lending 

charms  such  as  no  words  can  adequately  describe.  The  practice  of  tattooing  is  rapidly 
dying  out.  Men  formerly  were  elaborately  tattooed  on  the  legs,  arms,  and  the  hands;  women 
mostly  on  the  arms,  ankles,  and  feet. 

The  people  of  Tahiti  being,  like  other  Polynesians,  great  lovers  of  etiquette,  and  naturally 
hospitable,  have  invented  many  quaint  ways  of  making  presents,  especially  in  giving  bark- 
cloth  to  a  chief.  One  of  these  ceremonies  has  been  described  by  Captain  Cook,  who  himself 
was  the  recipient  of  such  a  present.  They  wrap  the  cloth  round  a  girl;  the  end  is  laid  on 
the  ground,  and  then  she  rolls  over  and  over  until  she  has  become  a  kind  of  living  reel,  not 
of  cotton,  but  of  cloth.  On  being  taken  into  the  presence  of  the  chief,  she  is  laid  down  on 
the  ground,  and  turns  round  and  round  until  all  is  unwound.  One  wonders  whether  the  girl 
is  "thrown  in"  as  a  mere  detail;  "take  me  also"  would  appear,  on  the  face  of  it,  to  be  the 
idea,  but  that  is  only  surmise. 

The  nobles  of  Tahiti  naturally  cling  to  their  rank,  but  make  no  parade  of  it.  Great 
deference  is  paid  to  a  chief  by  his  own  people,  but  he  dresses  very  much  as  they  do,  and 
partakes  of  the  same  kind  of  food.  Mr.  Bennett  says  it  was  "  usual  to  see  Queen  Amiata 
clad  in  a  loose  cotton  gown,  bareheaded  and  barefooted,  mingling  with  natives  of  every  class. 
Her  meals,  too,  are  equally  unostentatious,  the  bread-fruit,  poe,  cocoanuts,  and  baked  pig, 
intended  for  her  food,  being  placed  on  a  layer  of  fresh  leaves  spread  on  the  ground" 
("Whaling  Voyage  Round  the  Globe"). 

In  old  days  there  was  a  confraternity  called  the  "Aroeis"  throughout  these  islands.  The 
men  who  belonged  to  it  believed  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  in  a  heaven  suited  to 
their  natures,  in  which  every  one  was  young  and  fresh.  They  preached  no  sermons  on  self- 
denial  and  discipline — quite  the  other  way;  for  they  proclaimed  aloud  that  a  life  of 
unrestrained  licentiousness  here  was  the  path  leading  to  eternal  happiness  hereafter. 
Travelling  from  one  island  to  another,  they  proclaimed  this  fearful  doctrine,  and  were  seen  by 
Captain  Cook.  Everywhere  they  were  received  with  much  feasting,  accompanied  by  the 


PITCAIRN    ISLAND 


23 


utmost  licence.  The  weak  and  the  old  were  killed  off,  for  every  one  must  be  young  and 
vigorous.  There  was  only  one  redeeming  feature  of  their  mission;  they  gave  recitations  and 
dramatic  performances,  and  thus  history  and  tradition  were  kept  alive. 

In  Tahiti  and  others  of  the  Society  Islands  it  is  not  customary  to  purchase  wives;  but 
there  is,  or  perhaps  we  should  say  there  was,  a  very  curious  marriage  ceremony.  The  younger 
generation  have  mostly  abolished,  under  the  good  influence  of  missionary  teaching,  the  old 
barbaric  practices.  The  particular  custom  in  question  refers  to  young  betrothed  girls,  and 
resembles  that  of  Xew  Ireland  (Bismarck  Archipelago,  see  page  32).  As  she  grows  up  the  little 
maid  is  carefully  guarded  from  contact  with  the  outer  world,  and  this  is  effected  by  keeping 
her  railed  up  on  a  high  platform  in  the  home.  Food  is  brought,  and  nearly  everything  is 
done  for  her.  Only  very  occasionally  is  she  allowed  to  go  out,  and  then  she  must  be  accompanied 
by  one  of  her  parents.  On  the  wedding  day  an  altar  is  set  up  in  the  house,  on  which  are 
displayed  the  relics  of  her  ancestors — their  weapons,  skulls,  and  bones.  The  presents  given  to 
the  bride  are  usually  pieces  of  white  cloth.  If  bride  and  bridegroom  are  related  to  the 
reigning  family,  the  party  repair  to  the  temple  of  two  chief  idols  of  the  islands,  in  order 
to  procure  their  blessing.  This  they  receive  after  pledging  their  troth,  and  prayers  are 
offered  up  for  them.  Then  the  relatives  spread  out  a  piece  of  white  cloth  on  the  floor;  the 
bride  and  bridegroom  step  on  to  it,  and  take  each  other  by  the  hand.  Sometimes  the  skulls 
of  ancestors  are  brought  out,  no  doubt  in  order  to  represent  their  spirits,  with  the  idea  that 
they  should  take  part  in  such  an  important  family  affair.  The  bride's  relatives  then  take  a 
piece  of  sugar-cane,  wrap  it  up  in  the  branch  of  a  certain  sacred  tree,  and,  after  placing  it  on 
the  head  of  the  bridegroom,  lay  it  down  between  the  now  wedded  pair,  who  are  still  holding 
each  other's  hands.  The  relatives  on  both  sides  consider  that  the  two  families  are  now  for 
ever  united.  Finally,  another  cloth  is  produced,  and  thrown  over  the  bride  and  bridegroom  by 
the  relatives. 

PITCAIRX   ISLAND. 

IT  is  impossible  in  the  space  allotted  to  Polynesia  to  speak  of  all  the  groups  of  islands 
included  under  that  term:  but  we  may  briefly  allude  to  Pitcairn  Island,  situated  in  the  Low 


Photo  by  H.  \V.  BauAaw] 


A    FISHERMAN,    HAWAII. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Archipelago,  right  away  to  the  east, 
because  it  was  the  scene  of  a  very  re- 
markable episode  in  the  history  of  civilisa- 
tion as  promoted  by  Englishmen.  In 
the  year  1790  nine  mutinous  British 
seamen,  with  six  Tahitian  men  and 
twelve  women,  arrived  at  this  little  island 
in  the  ship  Bounty.  Discord  broke  out 
among  the  settlers,  so  that  after  some 
years  only  one  Englishman  was  left  out 
of  nine,  together  with  the  women  from 
Tahiti,  and  a  number  of  children.  But 
this  one  Englishman — whose  memory 
deserves  at  least  a  monument  (or  a 
picture  by  some  great  artist) — repenting 
of  his  evil  ways  and  awakening  to  a 
sense  of  his  responsibility  for  those 
dependent  on  him,  set  to  work  and 
taught  his  companions  to  be  indus- 
trious, moral,  and  religious. 

The  colony  was  several  times  visited 
in  later  years  by  English  and  American 
vessels.  In  1825  Captain  Beechey 
found  a  community  of  sixty-six  persons 
living  together  in  perfect  harmony,  a 
happy  family — where  crime  was  un- 
known! In  1878  Rear- Admiral  A.  F.  R.  De  Horsey  visited  the  island  and  confirmed  the 
previous  report;  the  inhabitants  then  numbered  ninety.  In  his  words,  they  continued  "  to 
live  together  in  perfect  harmony  and  contentment;  to  be  virtuous,  religious,  cheerful,  and 
hospitable;  to  be  patterns  of  conjugal  and  parental  affection,  and  to  have  very  few  vices." 


Photo  by  H.   )('.  lltmhaw\ 


[Hito,  l/aicuii. 


A    MAN    WITH    CALA HASHES,    HAWAII. 


SANDWICH   ISLANDS. 


THE  indigenous  population  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  is  about  40,000,  although  at  the  time 
when  Cook  was  there  it  was  said  to  have  numbered  300,000.  This  great  decrease  in  numbers 
is,  rather  puzzling.  Neither  the  diseases  nor  the  ardent  spirits  introduced  by  Europeans  are 
sulficient  to  account  for  it.  Some  writers  consider  that  it  is  due  to  the  missionaries,  who 
have  been  very  zealous  in  forbidding  native  customs.  The  oppressive  system  of  government, 
the  discontinuance  of  ancient  sports,  and  consequent  change  in  the  habits  of  the  people,  have 
been  powerful  agents  in  this  work  of  depopulation.  The  natives  are  often  called  Kanakas, 
but  the  term,  a  loose  one,  is  not  confined  to  these  people.  As  the  reader  probably  knows, 
they  have  adopted  European  customs  and  dress.  They  all  read  and  write.  In  recent  years 
they  have  excited  a  melancholy  interest  in  Europe  owing  to  the  prevalence  among  them 
of  the  terrible  disease  of  leprosy;  but  neither  disease  nor  drunkenness  offers  a  satisfactory 
explanation  of  the  rapid  dwindling  away  of  this  strong,  healthy,  and  handsome  race. 

From  1820  to  1860  the  American  Congregationalists  held  the  missionary  field  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  and  HOAV  the  Anglican  Church  has  begun  work  here.  A  large  number  of 
Chinese  coolies  have  been  imported  into  the  islands  for  work  on  the  plantations,  and  there 
are  a  good  many  Europeans.  Honolulu  is  the  capital,  and  the  islands  have  recently  been 
annexed  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER    II. 

NEW   GUINEA,  BISMARCK  ARCHIPELAGO,   ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS,   SOLOMON 
ISLANDS,  NEW  HEBRIDES,  NEW  CALEDONIA,  AND  NEW  ZEALAND. 


WE  now  return  to  the  region  of  Melanesia,  which  includes  all  the  islands  from  New  Guinea 
in  the  west  to  Fiji  in  the  east,  a  region  inhabited  by  the  black  Papuan  race — hence  the 
name  (Greek  melas,  black) — and  will  describe  the  people  of  New  Guinea,  the  Bismarck 
Archipelago,  the  Admiralty  Islands,  the  Solomon  Islands,  the  New  Hebrides,  and  New  Caledonia. 
The  people  whose  manners  and  customs  we  are  about  to  describe  all  have  frizzly  hair,  as 
the  reader  will  see  on  inspecting  their  portraits.  It  is  one  of  their  prevailing  characteristics, 
and  the  whole  head  of  hair  has  much  the  appearance  of  a  mop.  Hence  the  Malays  gave 
them  the  name  papuivah  (frizzled);  and  so  we  call  them  Papuan  (pronounced  Pa-poo-an). 
Travelling  eastwards  from  New  Guinea,  we  pass  the  islands  of  Melanesia  in  the  following 
order:  the  Admiralty  Islands,  New  Britain  (New  Pomerania),  and  New  Ireland  (New  Meckleu- 
berg),  the  t\vo  latter  having  received  from  the  Germans  the  names  given  in  brackets, 
and  being  known  to  them  as  the  Bismarck  Archipelago.  Proceeding,  we  meet  with  the 
Solomon  Islands,  the  Santa  Cruz  (or  Queen  Charlotte)  group,  the  New  Hebrides,  the  French 
settlements  of  New  Caledonia  and  the  Loyalty  Islands,  and,  lastly,  the  Fiji  group,  whose 
inhabitants  we  have  already  described.  (See  the  map  on  pages  vi,  vii.) 


NEW   GUINEA. 

THE  people  of  New  Guinea  have  been  known 
as  Papuans  ever  since  Europeans  came  to 
the  island,  some  three  hundred  years  ago, 
or  more.  The  race,  like  most  others,  appears 
to  be  somewhat  mixed;  the  purest  part  of 
it  is  in  the  north-west  of  the  island,  but 
there  is  probably  no  other  indigenous  race 
in  New  Guinea,  unless  we  consider  the 
Karons  to  be  Negritos  (little  Negroes),  a 
very  primitive  people  of  smaller  stature, 
and  generally  of  a  very  low  type,  such  as 
is  found  in  the  Andaman  Islands,  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  and  the  Philippines.  Papuans 
differ  among  themselves,  although,  as  Pro- 
fessor Keane  says,  "they  are  one  of  the 
most  strikingly  distinct  types  of  mankind." 
On  account  of  their  differences,  some 
authorities  refuse  to  regard  them  as  a  distinct 
race.  However,  this  much  is  quite  certain: 
that  Papuans  are  very  different  from  their 


Photo  by  Kev.  W.  if.  Lawts,  New  Guima. 

THREE    NEW   GUIXEA    GIRLS. 


26 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


neighbours,  the  Malays.  Nor 
again  can  they  be  confused 
either  with  Australians,  or  with 
brown  Polynesians,  already  de- 
scribed. The  average  height 
of  a  New  Guinea  native  is 
from  5  feet  6  inches  to  5  feet 
8  inches.  Although  strongly 
built,  his  legs  are  thin.  His 
hands  and  feet  are  large.  The 
skin  is  dark,  but  never  quite 
black,  like  that  of  the  Negro. 
The  skull  is  long,  and  the 
lower  jaw  is  decidedly  pro- 
minent, as  are  the  brows. 
The  nose  is  large,  with  broad 
nostrils,  but  deeply  depressed 
at  the  top.  There  is  hair  on 
the  chest  and  arms,  but  very 
little  on  the  chin.  The  lips 
are  full,  but  not  so  large  as 
those  of  a  Negro,  and  the 
face  is  somewhat  oval. 

The  physical  differences 
observable  among  the  Papuans 
of  NCAV  Guinea  may  be 
explained  by  a  certain  amount 
of  intermingling  with  other 
races.  Thus,  Malays  have 
settled  in  some  parts  of  the 
island,  Australians  in  others. 
Brown  Polynesians,  too,  have 
put  in  an  appearance  in  the 
south-east.  But  for  all  that,  we  find  the  frizzly  hair  everywhere,  reminding  us  of  the 
"  Fuzzy- Wuzzy  "  of  Mr.  Eudyard  Kipling's  ballad. 

In  character  the  Papuan  is  impulsive  and  demonstrative,  in  this  way  presenting  a 
great  contrast  to  the  quiet  Malay.  Mr.  Alfred  Russel  Wallace  says:  "  Ib  appears  that, 
whether  we  consider  their  physical  conformation,  their  moral  characteristics,  or  their 
intellectual  capacities,  the  Malay  and  Papuan  races  offer  remarkable  differences  and 
striking  contrasts.  The  Malay  is  of  short  stature,  brown-skinned,  straight-haired, 
beardless,  and  smooth-bodied.  The  Papuan  is  taller,  is  black-skinned,  frizzly-haired, 
bearded,  hairy-bodied.  The  former  is  broad-faced,  has  a  small  nose  and  flat  eyebrows; 
the  latter  is  long-faced,  has  a  large  and  prominent  nose  (an  important  characteristic 
feature)  and  projecting  eyebrows.  The  Malay  is  bashful,  cold,  undemonstrative,  and  quiet; 
the  Papuan  is  bold,  impetuous,  excitable,  and  noisy.  The  former  is  grave  and  seldom 
laughs;  the  latter  is  joyous  and  laughter-loving;  the  one  conceals  his  emotions,  the  other 
displays  them." 

The  New  Guinea  Papuans  used  to  go  about  naked,  as  many  of  them  do  still,  but  they 
sometimes  wear  a  breech-cloth  made  of  bark,  while  the  women  wear  a  fringed  girdle,  or 
perhaps  a  short  petticoat  of  woven  grass.  The  men  take  much  pride  in  their  hair,  which 
stands  up  like  a  big  mop,  or  grows  in  tassels  arranged  round  the  head.  But  they  have 
many  fashions  in  hair-dressing,  though  we  cannot  here  describe  them  all.  The  bright 


From  Dr.  A.  JJ.  Meyer's  "  Album  von  PAUippinen  Typen,"  Dresden. 
YOUNG   MEN   OF  SIAR,    EAST  NEW  GUINEA. 


Photo  by  William  Lind't] 


[.Melbourne. 


DOBO    OR    TREE-HOUSE    FOR    UNMARRIED    WOMEN. 


28 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


PhoLo  by  Jtei:  W.  If.  La 


»,  New  Guinea. 

TWO    NEW    GUIXEA    HOYS. 


flowers  of  the 
hibiscus  are  often 
placed  in  the  hair; 
plumes  of  the  bird- 
of-paradise  are  also 
used  in  the  same 
way.  A  small  bar 
of  shell,  bone,  or 
wood  is  thrust 
through  the  septum 
of  the  nose.  Xor 
must  \ve  omit  the 
comb,  which  is  a 
long  piece  of  split 
bamboo  sticking 
out  for  a  length  of 
two  feet,  or  even 
m  o  r  e,  a  n  d  o  r  n  a- 
m e  n t  e  d  with 
feathers,  or  disks  of 
pith.  Necklaces  are 

usually  made  of  small  shells,  teeth,  or  bone.  For  bracelets  and  armlets,  shells  are  cut  and 
ground  into  circular  shape,  but  some  are  made  merely  of  grass  or  fibre.  The  people  paint 
their  bodies  red,  yellow,  white,  or  black. 

The  dwellers  on  the  coast  build  their  houses  on  piles  over  the  sea.  Inland  the  houses 
are  also  raised  above  the  ground.  Safety  from  snakes  and  human  enemies  is  doubtless  the 
main  object,  but  this  mode  of  building  is  also  advantageous  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view. 
The  illustration  on  page  29  shows  one  of  these  pile-dwellings.  Another  illustration  shows  a 
very  peculiar  house  built  up  in  a  tall  tree;  these  houses  are  called  dobos  (see  page  27). 
If  any  enemy  comes  to  attack  the  inmates,  he  receives  a  shower  of  stones,  for  they  keep  a 
supply  ready  on  the  floor.  There  are  also  very  large  communal  houses,  as  in  Borneo, 
containing  many  families,  and  often  over  500  feet  long.  As  in  Sumatra  and  other  parts, 
the  people  have  club-houses,  where  strangers  are  welcome,  and  feasts  or  festive  gatherings 
take  place. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  New  Guinea  agriculture  is  largely  followed;  the  fields  are  fenced 
in,  to  protect  them  from  the  ravages  of  wild  pigs,  and  the  people  grow  sweet  potatoes, 
bananas,  yams,  and  sugar-cane.  In  the  Dutch  portion  of  New  Guinea,  to  the  west,  the 
ground  is  not  much  cultivated;  fish  and  sago  are  the  principal  diet  in  that  large  district. 
Intoxicating  drinks  are  fortunately  unknown  in  most  parts  of  the  island.  The  people  are 
very  fond  of  pork,  and,  as  in  New  Zealand,  the  women  make  great  pets  of  little  pigs. 
You  may  see  a  girl  holding  a  young  pig  in  her  arms,  caressing  it  and  talking  to  it,  just 
as  an  English  young  lady  might  treat  a  cat  or  a  small  dog.  Captain  Cayley  Webster 
says  he  has  seen  a  mother  suckling  a  young  pig  and  an  infant  at  the  same  time.  Like 
the  Australian  Aborigines,  they  do  not  object  to  eating  many  large  kinds  of  insects;  lizards, 
fish,  and  molluscs  are  also  regular  articles  of  food.  The  Papuan  weapons  of  New  Guinea 
are  spears,  knives,  axes  of  jade,  with  the  edges  ground,  clubs,  and  the  bow  and  arrow. 
Spears  are  tipped  with  bone  or  hard  bamboo.  The  blow-pipes,  which  emit  a  cloud  of  dust 
and  smoke,  appear  to  have  been  used  of  old  in  imitation  of  firearms;  but  that  trick  is 
no  longer  of  any_ujse,  so  they  have  been  given  up.  The  religion  is  chiefly  a  belief  in 
spirits,  most  of  whom  are  inclined  to  evil  deeds.  When  any  one  dies,  his  relations  make 
a  wooden  image  in  which  his  departed  spirit  may  dwell,  so  that  it  shall  not  wander 
aimlessly  about  and  perhaps  cause  all  manner  of  sickness  and  disease.  These  images  are 


NEW    GUINEA 


29 


often  most  elaborately  carved.      Some  Papuans  worship  their  ancestors;    they  certainly  have  no 
doubts  regarding  a  future  life. 

The  Papuan  men,  being  warriors,  look  down .  upon  their  women-folk,  whom  they  regard 
as  labourers — at  least  to  a  certain  extent.  The  wives,  however,  are  not,  as  a  rule,  badly 
treated,  and  by  no  means  as  mere  slaves,  for  they  somehow  contrive  to  have  a  voice  in  the 
management  of  affairs,  both  domestic  and  public.  As  in  Europe  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar, 
so  here,  it  is  often  the  women  who  incite  the  men  to  war,  or  perhaps  to  deeds  of  murder 
and  plunder.  They  have  been  known  to  arouse  the  fighting  instinct  in  men  by  rushing 
wildly  into  their  midst  and  addressing  them  in  such  terms  as  these:  "What!  Are  you 
afraid  to  do  this?  and  yet  you  call  yourselves  men  and  warriors!  Out  upon  you!  You  have 
not  the  hearts  of  men;  you  are  more  like  a  pack  of  old  women!  You  ought  to  put  on  the 
grass  petticoat,  stay  at  home,  and  do  the  cooking!"  Taunts  such  as  these  usually  have  the 
desired  effect.  When  a  man  is  grown  up,  he  looks  out  for  a  wife;  but  there  are  difficulties 
in  the  way,  and  the  would-be  husband  may  have  to  wait  a  long  time.  Wives  cannot  be  got 
for  nothing,  and  so  the  man  (we  can  hardly  call  him  a  lover)  must  make  the  best  use  he 
can  of  his  time,  and  get  together  no  small  amount  of  worldly  goods  wherewith  to  buy  his 
wife  from  her  parents,  or,  if  they  are  dead,  from  her  guardians.  The  payment  usually 
consists  of  pigs,  food,  ornaments,  pearl-shells,  calico  and  beads,  or  other  European  articles  of 
manufacture,  if  such  have  found  their  way  to  his  village.  There  is  usually  great  variety  in 
the  presents.  Mr.  William  Lindt,  some  of  whose  beautiful  photographs  are  here  reproduced  by 


Photo  by 


[Melbourne. 


PILE-DWELLINGS.    KOITAPU,    AT    LOW    \VATEK. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


his  kind  permission,  says  in  his  book  "Pic- 
turesque New  Guinea":  "Among  other 
curious  sights,  we  were  shown  the  price,  or 
dowry,  of  a  wife,  heaped  upon  the  platform 
of  one  of  the  houses.  It  consisted  of  a 
quantity  of  all  kinds  of  New  Guinea  goods 
and  chattels,  pots,  earthenware,  wooden  wea- 
pons, birds-of -paradise  plumes,  baskets  of 
yams,  bunches  of  bananas,  and  other  produce. 
Among  the  articles  were  two  pigs  tied  up 
underneath  the  house.  The  bride  herself 
sat,  all  smiles,  on  the  verandah  above,  over 
her  earthly  treasures,  with  as  much  pride  as 
any  white  sister  might  feel  on  exhibiting  her 
trousseau."  The  pig  or  pigs  must  on  no 
account  be  omitted.  As  a  rule,  a  woman,  on 
her  marriage,  is  deprived  of  all  her  hair  and 
ornaments.  As  a  sign  to  all  that  she  is 
now  married,  her  face  is  tattooed;  young 
girls  are  tattooed  all  over  the  body,  their 
faces  only  excepted.  On  the  day  of  the 
wedding  a  great  feast  is  held,  at  which  the 
company  devours  yams,  bananas,  betel-nut, 
and  the  fatted  pig.  Presents  are  brought  by 
the  invited  guests,  and  these  consist  chiefly 
of  contributions  to  the  marriage  feast.  Bride 
and  bridegroom  are  dressed  in  all  their  best 
garments,  and  decked  out  in  feathers  and 
shells  and  bright  leaves  of  plants.  No  priest 
is  called  in  to  tie  the  knot,  and  as  soon  as 
the  feasting  is  over  the  young  couple  settle 
down  to  married  life.  The  marriage  tie,  un- 
fortunately, is  not  considered  very  binding, 
and  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  a  woman 
to  leave  her  husband  three  or  four  times 
during  their  married  life.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances domestic  life  can  hardly  be  said 
to  present  a  pleasing  picture;  quarrels  are  matters  of  frequent  occurrence. 

The  manners  and  customs  of  New  Guinea  vary  greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  island. 
Hereditary  chiefs  are  unknown,  and  there  is  no  recognised  form  of  government.  Public 
opinion,  however,  is  strong,  and  the  people  have  unwritten  rules  of  conduct. 

We  may  be  allowed  to  add  a  few  words  in  conclusion  on  mission  work  in  this  great 
island  (which  is  very  much  larger  than  Great  Britain).  Dutch  and  German  missionaries  have 
been  at  Avork  since  1856  in  Geelvink  Bay,  on  the  north-west  coast,  Dutch  territory,  but  with 
little  success.  The  Papuan  is  so  self-reliant  as  to  be  almost  entirely  devoid  of  the  feelings 
of  reverence  and  respect,  and  it  seems  hopeless  to  look  for  any  great  results  in  this  territory — 
at  least  with  the  present  generation.  But  in  British  territory  missionary  labours  have  been 
by  no  means  in  vain.  The  Wesleyan  Mission  began  work  in  1891,  and  the  Anglican  Mission 
in  the  same  year.  The  London  Missionary  Society  has  been  established  many  years;  it  is 
under  the  management  of  Mr.  Chalmers  and  Mr.  Lawes  (two  of  whose  photographs  we 
reproduce  by  kind  permission  on  pages  25  and  28),  who  have  both  rendered  great  service 
to  science  by  their  careful  researches  in  Ethnology.  It  has  over  50  stations  and  about  100 


of  Dr.   \\'.  //.  Guilleinard. 
TWO   ARFAK   MEN. 


BISMARCK    ARCHIPELAGO 


From  Dr.  A.  B.  Meyer's  "Album  xoit,  P/lilippinen 
'1  Dresden. 


MAN    OF    NEW    BRITAIN. 


native  Avorkers;  some  3,500  children  attend  school.  So 
far  as  one  can  judge,  the  Papuan  has  not  as  yet  been 
deeply  impressed  by  the  truths  of  the  Gospel.  But 
the  success  of  the  above  Society  has  been  recognised 
by  the  Government,  for  a  Colonial  Office  Report  says: 
"  But  if  striking  outward  manifestation  of  the  working 
of  religious  feeling  be  rare  among  those  under  the 
influence  of  the  Mission,  it  can  be  said  without  re- 
serve that  the  labours  of  the  missionaries  have  to 
such  an  extent  modified  the  ways  of  thinking  and  the 
social  relations  of  the  natives,  that  the  good  they 
have  done  is  incalculably  great."  Missionaries  of  the 
Order  of  the  Sacred  Heart  are  also  at  work  here, 
but  each  society  has  a  separate  field,  so  that  there 
is  no  overlapping. 

BISMARCK   ARCHIPELAGO. 

A  LITTLE  to  the  east  of  New  Guinea  lies  the  Bismarck 
Archipelago,  which  belongs  to  Germany.  The  people 
here  are  Papuans.  The  chief  islands  are  New  Britain 
(Neu  Pommern  the  Germans  call  it),  New  Ireland 

(Neu  Mecklenberg),  the  Admiralty  group,  and  Duke  of  York  Islands. 

In    New    Britain     a    young     man     contemplating     matrimony    confides    the    secret    to    his 

parents,    or,    if   he   be   an    orphan,    to   the   chief   of   the   tribe   to   which   he    belongs,    informing 

them  at  the  same  time   who  is  the  maiden    that   he   wishes   for.     He  is  then  sent  off  into  the 

bush,   in   order,   we  may  suppose,   to  be  out    of    the  way  while  his  father  goes  to  the  girl's 

relations   to   arrange   about   the   dowry,    or   purchase-money,    over   which   there   is   usually   much 

haggling.      On  the  wedding  day  a  feast    is    held    at  the  bridegroom's  house,  with   the  usual 

accompaniments    of    music    and    dancing.      The    bride    does    a    good    deal    of  dancing  herself. 

Meanwhile,  the  unfortunate  bridegroom  is  still  waiting 

in   the   bush;    the   parents   at    last   send   some   one   to 

bring  him   in.     The   person   deputed   for   this  purpose 

may  have   great   difficulty   in   finding   him;    for  young 

men,  on  these  interesting  occasions,  frequently  wander 

away   for    many   a    mile — with    the    idea    of    escaping 

from   the  power  of  departed   spirits,  who  are  supposed 

at  such   times  to    exercise    an   evil   influence.      These 

excursions  into    the   "forest    primeval"   are    not    un- 
attended   with    danger,    for     there    is    a    risk    of    the 

bridegroom  being  killed   by  some   hostile  tribe  on  the 

war-path.      Should    a    chief     desire    to    be    allied    by 

marriage   with    a    particular    family,    he   buys   a   child 

before   its  birth.      Should   it  prove  to  be  a  boy,  the 

presents    are    returned;     if     a    girl,    she    becomes    his 

absolute    property,    although    living   with    her    parents 

until  old  enough  to  become  his  wife.     When  married, 

there  is  no  limit  to  the  power  of  her  lord  and  master, 

who  can  even  take  her  life.     There  is  a  horrible  story 

of   a   chief   who   lived   on   the   shore   of    Blanche   Bay. 

His  young   wife   used   to   cry  and   beg  to  be   allowed 

to   return   to   her    own    people,    and,    what   Avas   much 


From  Dr.  A.  B.  Meyer's  "  Album  von  Phillpjnnen 
Ti/ijen^  Dresden. 


AVOMAN    OF    NEW    BRITAIN. 


32 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


/ 


worse  in  the  eyes  of  her  brutal  husband,  she  refused  to 
do  any  work.  This  he  could  not  endure,  and  flying  one 
day  into  a  furious  passion,  he  told  her  that,  since  she  was 
of  no  use  as  a  wife,  he  would  make  use  of  her  in  another 
way.  Seizing  a  spear,  he  killed  her  on  the  spot,  cooked 
her  body,  and  called  his  friends  together  for  a  feast. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  give  a  separate  description  of 
the  people  of  N"ew  Britain,  for  they  are  very  similar  in 
appearance  to  the  natives  of  Xew  Ireland.  They  are  all 
Papuans. 

The  people  of  New  Ireland,  according  to  Mr.  A.  J. 
Duffield,  are  poor  in  flesh,  lanky,  short  in  stature,  and 
light  in  weight.  Their  usual  colour  is  a  dark  brown,  but 
many  are  much  lighter.  Their  hair  is  crisp  and  glossy. 
Their  power  of  sight  for  long  distances  is  remarkable,  and 
they  readily  take  to  habits  of  cleanliness,  order,  and 
regularity.  Both  men  and  women  usually  go  about  abso- 
lutely naked;  some  women,  however,  wear  a  grass  apron. 
Tattooing  and  cutting  of  the  flesh  are  entirely  confined 
to  women  and  the  head-men.  The  women  make  an 
excellent  bonnet  from  palm-leaves,  and  also  a  cloak  covering 
the  back  of  the  head;  but  this  they  only  use  in  the  rainy 
season.  The  septum  of  the  nose  is  perforated,  to  receive 
rings  of  beads  or  other  ornaments.  Mr.  Duffield  saw  no 
mutilations,  such  as  knocking  out  the  front  teetli  or  cutting 
off  the  eyebrows.  The 
people  put  flowers  and 
gaudy  feathers  in  their 

hair;    some  paint  their  bodies  with  red  and 

yellow  earth.      Their  huts  are  in  the  shape 

of     beehives,     small,     and     surrounded     by 

palisades  of  bamboo.     The  young  unmarried 

men  live  in  larger  common  houses.     Canni- 

balism is  more   or  less   general.      Polygamy 

is   common;    and   here   we    find   a   very   re- 

markable  marriage   custom,    young    girls   of 

six  or  eight  years   of   age  being  put  up  in 

cages  made  of  palm-leaves,   which  they  can 

never  leave  till   the  day  they  are  married. 

Old  women  guard  them.      The  cage,   being 

small,   is   placed   inside   a  larger  house,   but 

the  girl   may  only  come    out    of    the  cage 

once  a  day  to  have  a  wash,  and  the  house 

is  surrounded   by   a    fence    made    of  reeds. 

A  somewhat  similar  custom  is  to  be  found 

in  Tahiti  and  in  a  part  of  Borneo.     These 

people  construct   admirable   canoes,   but   use 


From  Dr.  A.  B.  Meyer's-" All/am  von  Philippinen 
Typen."  Dresden. 

WOMAN    OF    THE    ADMIRALTY    ISLANDS. 


no  sails.     With  twenty  paddles  they  can  go 

along  at  ten  miles  an  hour.     They  have  no 

bows  and  arrows,  but  only  clubs  and  spears; 

the  latter  are  of  great  length,  well  pointed,       From  Dl.  A  B  _Veyer,s  ,  A(bum  wn  Phmppinen  Typen»  Dresden. 

and  horribly  barbed  with  birds'  bones. 


WOMAN  OF  THE  ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS. 


34 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Both  clubs  and  spears  are  elaborately  carved;  they  also 
carve  their  earrings,  combs,  necklaces,  bracelets,  and  musical 
instruments,  as  well  as  canoes.  Many  of  the  men,  when 
Mr.  Duffield  saw  them,  bore  deep  scars  on  the  forehead  or 
the  thigh,  the  result  of  recent  fighting.  No  one  can  see  the 
collection  of  their  masks,  weapons,  etc.,  in  the  British  Museum 
Ethnological  Gallery,  without  perceiving  that  they  have  the 
artistic  faculty  well  developed. 

Mr.    Duffield    says   that,    on    first   making   their  acquaint- 
ance,   the  natives  proceeded   to   help  themselves  to   evervthing 
he  showed  them  which  took  their  fancy.     On  seeing  a  watch, 
^^^^^^^^^^        they  showed   110   emotion;    but  the  sight  of  a  common   screw, 
when  they  saw   it   enter   two   pieces   of   wood   and    hold    them 
together,   produced   screams  of  joyous  appreciation.     For   brass 
•      screws    they    were    willing    to    part    with    their    most    valued 
possessions.       The   mechanism    of  a   large    clasp-knife    puzzled 
iKigHflfl  them,    but   a   iile   or    a    saw   they   readily   understood.       To   a 

painted  landscape  they  showed  marked  repugnance,  but  the 
coloured  photograph  of  a  fair  woman  riveted  their  silent 
attention.  When  Mr.  Duffield  showed  them  a  looking-glass, 
some  were  scared  for  a  few  seconds,  but  presently  broke  out 
into  a  hearty  laugh  at  recognising  their  own  faces.  Others 

were  struck  with  fear,  as  if  they  had  seen  a  ghost.  They  were  much  pleased  when  their 
visitor  demonstrated  the  reflecting  power  of  the  glass  by  flashing  sun-light  about.  But  their 
attention  appeared  to  be  chiefly  occupied  with  scheming  how  to  get  possession  of  the  things 
which  they  most  fancied.  Some  few  articles  were  stolen,  but  readily  given  up  on  demand. 


Fi-om  hi.  A.  li.   Mtyer'n 
.c    Typen." 


A    NEW    IRELAND    MAIDEN. 


ADMIRALTY   ISLANDS. 

BEFORE  leaving  the  Bismarck  Archipelago,  we  must  say  a  few  words  about  the  people  of  the 
small  group  known  as  the  Admiralty  Islands.  It  was  first  visited  by  Carteret  in  1767,  but  his 
party  were  attacked  by  the  natives  and  did  not  land.  The  first  Europeans  who  landed  were 
those  on  board  the  famous  scientific  exploring  ship  H.M.S.  Challenger  in  1875.  The  inhabitants 
are  mop-headed  Papuans  of  the  usual  type,  fond  of  ornament  and  clever  at  carving  wood. 
They  make  lovely  ornaments  of  tortoise-shell,  carved  and  cemented  on  tridacna  shells.  Metal, 
fermented  drinks,  and  tobacco  were  all  unknown  to  them.  They  do  not  appear  to  be  so  nearly 
related  to  the  people  of  New  Guinea  as  we  might  expect,  and  probably  emigrants  came  in  a 
long  time  ago  from  the  north  and  cast.  The  average  height  of  a  man  is  5  feet  5  inches, 
and  of  a  woman  5  feet  1  inch.  They  are  thinner  and  more  lanky  than  the  people  of  New 
Guinea.  Their  colour  is  a  blackish  brown,  but  youths  and  girls  are  lighter,  sometimes  light 
yellowish  brown.  The  hair  is  crisp,  glossy,  and  curled  in  spirals,  and  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
hair  on  the  arms  and  legs.  The  forehead  is  flat,  with  overhanging  brows;  nose  short,  with 
flattened  tip,  and  the  septum  perforated  for  the  suspension  of  an  ornament.  The  ear-lobes 
are  dragged  down  by  ornaments. 

The  men  wear  ornaments  much  more  than  the  women,  who  rarely  do  so.  Those  for  the 
ear  or  the -nose  are  made  of  crocodiles'  teeth;  earrings  of  tortoise-shell  are  also  worn.  Waist- 
belts  and  armlets  are  made  of  fine  plaited  work,  with  black  and  yellow  patterns.  Round 
the  neck  and  hanging  down  the  back  are  carried  charms,  consisting  of  human  arm-bones  (the 
humerus)  bound  up  with  eagles'  feathers.  Adult  males  have  large  scars  dotted  about  the 
n;>ck  and  shoulders,  which  sometimes  are  continued  down  the  back,  in  two  oblique  lines,  from 
the  shoulders  down  to  the  waist.  They  are  seldom  tattooed,  but  the  women  always  are. 
The  tattoo  is  of  a  dark  blue  colour,  and  consists  'of  short  lines  forming  rings  round  the  eyes 


ADMIRALTY    ISLANDS 


35 


and  all  over  the  face;  also  diagonal  Hues 
over  the  upper  part  of  the  body.  The  men, 
however,  sometimes  redden  their  chests  and 
faces  with  burnt  clay.  Occasionally  one  sees 
a  face  reddened  on  the  one  side,  but  not  the 
other.  Some  use  a  black  manganese  ore 
instead;  old  women  are  often  blackened. 
These  people,  unlike  some  others,  are  ashamed 
to  go  about  naked:  the  men  wear  a  piece  of 
bark-cloth  as  a  bandage,  about  6  inches  wide, 
and  a  shell  in  a  bag  hangs  from  the  neck. 
The  women  wear  two  bunches  of  grass  fastened 
to  a  belt — one  in  front  and  one  behind,  the 
latter  being  the  longer — but  no  ornaments. 

The  diet  is  mixed:  cocoanuts  and  sago 
are  the  chief  vegetables;  they  eat  pigs'  flesh 
and  what  fish  they  can  catch.  Unlike  most 
Papuans,  they  have  no  bows  and  arrows,  clubs 
or  shields.  Their  houses  are  built  on  the 
ground,  close  to  the  shore,  not  elevated,  and 
of  an  elongated  beehive  shape.  Some  are 
merely  a  continuous  wall  and  thatch  of  grass 
and  cocoanut  leaves;  others  have  wooden  Avails 
cut  up  into  billets.  They  are  about  20  feet 
long,  10  feet  broad,  and  15  feet  high.  Food, 
implements,  etc.,  are  kept  on  shelves,  resting 


Dr.  A.  B.  Meyer's  "  Album  von  Philip  jjitie  it  Ti/pe/t. 
MEX    OF   NEW    IRELAND,    WITH    SPEARS. 


From  Dr.  A.  B.  Meyer's  "  Album  von  Philippinen   Typen."" 

MEN    OF   NEW    IRELAND,    IN    BATTLE-ARRAY. 


36  THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 

on  the  main  supporting-posts.  The  latter  are  sometimes  carved  and  painted,  with  a  human 
skull  stuck  on  the  top.  The  temples  are  rather  larger,  with  carved  wooden  posts,  one  repre- 
senting a  male,  the  other  a  female  figure.  These  probably  represent  the  guardian  deities. 
The  canoes  are  more  Polynesian  than  Papuan  in  form;  each  is  formed  from  the  hollow 
trunk  of  a  tree,  with  a  single  plank  built  on  to  it  above.  They  have  an  outrigger  on  one 
side.  A  platform  is  formed  with  planks  between  the  canoe  and  the  outrigger.  Of  musical 
instruments  the  natives  of  the  Admiralty  Islands  have  for  trumpet  a  conch-shell  perforated  on 
one  side,  a  simple  Jew's  harp  of  bamboo,  panpipes  of  from  three  to  five  pipes  of  different 
lengths,  and  drums.  But  they  have  no  idea  of  a  tune.  In  character  they  appeared  to 


Fnau  a  photograph  by  the  Bishop  of  Tasmania  (by  permission}. 

WOMEN   OF   PORT   ADAM,    SOLOMON   ISLANDS. 

Mr.    H.    N.    Moseley,  of  the   Challenger   Expedition — to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  above 
facts — to  be  excitable,  rapacious,  greedy,  and  jealous. 

A  few  words,  in  conclusion,  with  regard  to  their  expressions  of  emotion.  Astonishment  is 
shown  by  placing  the  finger  in  the  mouth,  delight  by  clapping  the  hands.  To  say  "Yes" 
the  head  is  jerked  upwards.  To  express  "No,"  or  a  negative,  the  nose  is  struck  with  the 
right  forefinger,  as  if  the  tip  were  to  be  cut  off.  This  action  is  capable  of  modification. 
Thus,  a  decided  negative  is  indicated  by  a  quick  stroke;  a  hesitating  one  by  rubbing  the 
finger  slowly  across  the  nose.  The  natives  quite  understood  the  action  of  a  burning-glass,  but 
a  looking-glass  was  beyond  their  comprehension,  and  they  have  been  known  to  break  one 
in  order  to  get  at  the  image  behind!  Crowds  of  people  came  to  see  the  man  with  white 
arms  who  showed  them  all  these  things:  they  could  not  understand  his  arms  and  legs 
being  white. 


SOLOMON     ISLANDS 


37 


SOLOMON    ISLANDS. 


THE  Solomon  group  comprises  seven  large  islands  and  others  which  are  smaller;  they  now 
all  belong  to  Great  Britain.  Formerly  the  natives  were  so  treacherous  that  Europeans  held 
but  little  intercourse  with  them.  But  now  traders  come  frequently,  and  a  mission 
has  been  established  ever  since  1847.  Mission  work  is  spreading  fairly  rapidly  in  the 
Diocese  of  Melanesia,  which  now  contains  12,000  Christians.  Some  bushmen  in  the 
island  of  Guadalcanal-,  noticing  the  difference  between  their  own  lives  and  those  of  the 
Christian  teachers,  who  neither  killed  people  nor  stole,  said:  "We  see  that  you  are  different 
from  us.  What  have  you  got  inside  you  that  makes  you  different  from  us?"  The  teachers 
promised  to  tell  them,  and  thus  a  mission  was  started  there.  The  people  are  of  a  deep  brown 
colour,  with  a  frizzly  but  rather  loose  mass  of  hair.  They  wear  very  little  clothing.  The 
lobes  of  the  ear  are  often  greatly  distended  for  the  insertion  of  very  large  rings  (see  illus- 
tration below).  The  men  wear  a  great  many  ornaments,  and  in  this  respect  resemble  Papuans ; 
but  they  have  certain  customs  which  (together  with  their  brownish  colour)  point  to  a  Polynesian 
influence.  Their  large  war-canoes,  from  40  to  50  feet  long,  are  highly  carved  and  much 
decorated.  They  have  hereditary  chiefs, 
differing  in  this  respect  from  the 
New  Guinea  Papuans.  Polygamy  and 
cannibalism  prevail.  They  cultivate 
the  banana,  tare,  and  sweet  potato. 
Besides  the  usual  weapons,  they  make 
beautiful  shields  of  wicker-work. 

A  girl  is  not  sought  in  marriage 
until  her  charms  have  been  enhanced 
by  the  tattooer's  art.  The  painful 
and  tedious  operation  is  performed  by 
a  specialist — a  sort  of  sorcerer  (called 
a  tindalo),  whose  services  are  hand- 
somely rewarded.  It  is  considered 
necessary  to  employ  musicians  as  well ; 
so  he  first  engages  a  company  of  pro- 
fessional vocalists.  The  concert  begins 
at  sunset,  and  is  kept  up  vigorously 
throughout  the  night.  The  poor  child 
is  kept  awake  by  her  friends  in  order 
to  hear  it  all.  At  sunrise  the  man 
begins  his  operations,  using  only  a 
sharp  bamboo  knife,  for  bamboo  is 
very  hard  and  frequently  used  for 
making  knives,  as  with  the  Andaman 
Islanders.  He  makes  a  curious  and 
artistic  network  of  patterns  on  the 
girl's  face  and  chest.  It  is  a  painful 
process,  but  she  suffers  without  a 
murmur,  for  all  primitive  races  train 
up  their  young  people  to  endure  pain 
silently.  Next  day  all  is  forgotten  in 

the     joyful     thought     that     She    is    nOW  Photo  by  Henry  King] 

an  eligible  young  woman.     From  this  A  NATIVE  OF  THE  SOLOMON  ISLANDS,  WITH  LARGE  RING 

time  her  parents  keep  a  watchful  eye  THE  LOBE  OF  HIS  EAR. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


over  their  daughter,  and  check  any  levity 
on  her  part.  Proposals  follow  ere  long, 
and  her  friends,  who  have  subscribed  towards 
the  expense  of  the  tattooing,  look  forward 
to  repayment  when  she  gets  a  husband. 
The  higher  her  rank  the  more  her  parents 
demand  of  a  suitor;  consequently  a  needy 
young  man  often  has  to  wait  a  long  time 
for  a  wife — as  in  some  other  places.  But 
if  a  swain  is  known  to  have  "expecta- 
tions," he  may  pay  down  a  part  of  the 
purchase-money,  and  claim  the  girl  as  his 
fiancee.  Chiefs'  daughters  seldom  marry 
early;  their  fathers  expect  too  much.  Oc- 
casionally it  happens  that  the  daughter  of 
a  chief  remains  in  single  blessedness  until 
the  death  of  her  father,  when  she  may  be 
bought  "for  an  old  song,"  as  the  saying 
is,  by  some  middle-aged  widower,  or  an 
impecunious  suitor  who  has  been  waiting  for 
years.  When  a  young  girl  is  betrothed, 
and  her  future  husband  has  paid  the 
amount  in  full,  she  goes  to  live  with  his 
mother  until  the  time  comes  when  she  may 
become  his  wife.  Soon  after  the  purchase 
has  been  made  her  parents  give  a  feast 
to  those  who  have  generously  subscribed 
towards  the  tattooing;  this  is  followed  by  another  feast,  given  by  the  bridegroom's  parents, 
and  there  are  no  other  ceremonies,  either  at  betrothals  or  marriages. 

In  a  small  island  of  this  group,  known  as  Florida  Island,  marriage  customs  are  somewhat 
different.  The  money  is  paid  to  the  girl's  female  relations.  The  act  of  giving  away  the 
bride  is  rather  curious;  she  is  lifted  off  the  ground,  and  carried  out  of  the  house  on  the 
back  of  one  of  the  women,  Avho  delivers  her  to  the  youth's  father.  For  two  or  three  months 
after  this  she  stays  in  the  house  of  her  future  father-in-law,  until  the  necessary  presents  of 
pigs  and  food  arrive.  Not  till  then  can  the  wedding  be  celebrated.  And  here  we  meet 
with  another  curious  custom.  During  the  morning  of  the  feast  the  boys  of  the  village 
harass  the  bride's  relations  by  playfully  shooting  arrows  at  them.  So  skilful  is  their  practice 
that  they  can  safely  send  arrows  whizzing  past  the  ears  of  a  guest,  over  his  head,  beneath  his 
legs,  or  even  through  his  hair.  These  delicate  attentions,  however,  become  a  positive 
nuisance;  and  after  many  forcible  expressions  of  disgust  the  men  gladly  purchase  immunity 
from  further  hair  breadth  escapes  by  paying  ransom.  In  the  large  island  of  Malanta  betrothed 
children  pay  frequent  visits  at  the  homes  of  their  parents,  and  thus  become  well  acquainted 
with  one  another.  Consequently,  when  the  wedding  day  comes,  the  girl  shows  none  of  that 
reluctance  so  often  displayed  elsewhere. 

The  Solomon  Islanders  are  very  fond  of  dancing,  though  they  do  not  carry  the  art  to 
such  a  state  of  perfection  as  do  the  people  of  the  New  Hebrides,  farther  south.  However,  they 
make  it  a  professional  business,  on  the  principle  that  the  greatest  delight  is  to  watch  other 
people  dance.  The  chief  and  his  advisers  choose  the  dance,  and  select  the  dancers  out  of  a 
large  number  of  aspirants.  Then  comes  the  rehearsal,  which  sometimes  lasts  for  a  year  or 
more.  We  will  only  attempt  to  describe  one  of  their  dances,  the  souruka,  and  that  only 
briefly.  Thirty-six  dancers  are  required,  who  take  up  their  position  in  a  wedge-like  phalanx- 
four  ranks  of  fours,  four  of  threes,  and  four  of  twos,  one  rank  behind  the  other;  the  big 


By  jwmistiion  of  Messrs.  Mansell  &  Co. 

A    MAN    OF    THE    SOLOMON    ISLANDS. 


NEW    HEBRIDES 


39 


meii  being  placed  in  front,  the  smaller  men  and  boys  behind.  The  dancers  pipe  for 
themselves,  and  the  dancing  consists  in  wriggling  the  body,  and,  bent  double,  swaying  the 
head,  arms,  and  legs,  and  marking  time  with  the  feet.  Strings  of  nutshells  bound  on  their 
ankles  rattle  in  rhythm  with  their  movements.  The  leaders  play  a  melody  on  panpipes,  to 
which  less  skilled  musicians  add  an  accompaniment  with  bamboo  trumpets.  The  music 
changes  with  the  figures  of  the  dance,  marking  the  time  and  the  change  of  step.  The 
general  effect  is  good — the  result  of  careful  rehearsing.  The  chief  who  owns  the  party,  like 
an  enterprising  manager,  spares  no  expense  to  make  the  performance  a  success.  His  dancers 
are  gaily  decked  in  white  cockatoos'  feathers  and  gaudy  waist-cloths,  necklaces,  and  other 
ornaments.  Formerly,  when  the  people  were  more  under  the  influences  of  their  sorcerers 
(tindalos),  they  went  through  a  solemn  function  or  ceremony,  in  order  to  place  the  dancers 
under  the  protection  of  some  powerful  tindalo  whose  influence  (or  spirit)  should  make  their 
movements  agile  and  their  music  inspiring.  The  man  who  presided  over  this  ceremony  Avas 
highly  paid  for  his  services.  A  party  of  dancers  and  the  mixed  multitude  attending  them, 
sometimes  numbering  more  than  350  in  all,  and  occupying  a  fleet  of  thirty  canoes,  make  a 
round  of  visits  lasting  three  months.  Several  performances  are  given  at  each  place,  after 
which  the  spectators  supply  them  with  food,  while  the  chief  pays  their  wages. 

These  dancing  parties,  according  to  the  Rev.  Alfred  Penny,  are  quite  harmless,  and  in 
fact  have  been  used  for  the  spread  of  Christianity.  He  says:  "At  first  the  Christians  held 
aloof  because  of  the  tindalo  influence  upon  the  dancers,  and  because  they  would  have  to 
give  up  school  and  prayers  during  the  tour.  But  when  their  numbers  came  to  be  consider- 
able, the  idea  occurred  to  some  of  us  to  let  a  Christian  party  go,  attended  by  a  teacher  as 
chaplain,  if  the  chief  would  consent  to  forgo  the  tindalo  part  of  the  business.  On  several 
occasions  this  has  been  done.  A  large  dancing  party  started  three  years  ago  from  Gaeta 
with  a  contingent  of  fifty  Christians,  and  went  the  round  of  Florida  Island.  Each  night  and 
morning  those  men  met  together  for 
prayers;  and  though  at  first  they  had  to 
encounter  ridicule,  the  ridicule  in  time 
gave  way  before  their  pertinacity." 


NEW   HEBRIDES. 

THE  New  Hebrides  are  a  group  of  vol- 
canic islands  which  received  their  present 
name  from  Captain  Cook,  who  visited 
them  in  1774.  They  have  a  total  area  of 
5,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
70,000,  governed  at  present  by  a  mixed 
commission  of  officers  of  the  British  and 
French  warships  in  the  Pacific.  Although 
the  climate  is  ill-suited  for  Europeans, 
missionary  work  has  been  carried  on  with 
unremitting  zeal.  Erromanga,  the  largest 
of  the  southern  group,  where  the  natives 
were  at  first  extremely  hostile,  and  where 
five  missionaries  have  been  murdered,  now 
contains  over  1,000  Christians.  In  the 
five  southern  islands  there  are  more  than 
forty  schools,  thanks  to  the  labours  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church.  In  the  northern 
group,  consisting  of  thirty-five  islands, 
the  natives  are  more  friendly  than  in  the 


By  permission  of  Messrs.  Mansell  &  Co. 

A    WOMAN    OF   THE    SOLOMON    ISLANDS. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


southern  islands;  throughout  the  archipelago  there  is  great  variety  of  character,  language, 
and  complexion.  Thus,  the  people  of  Aoba,  or  Lepers'  Island,  seem  to  be  true  Polynesians, 
with  nearly  straight  hair  and  a  light  complexion,  but  as  a  rule  the  natives  of  the  K"ew  Hebrides 
are  dark  and  woolly-haired,  although  probably  not  pure  Papuans. 

In  the  northern  islands  of  the  group  only  the  chiefs,  or  other  great  and  important 
people,  betroth  their  children  in  youth.  A  betrothed  girl  lives  in  the  same  house  as  her 
future  husband,  who  very  often  is  taught  to  regard  the  little  plaything  as  his  sister.  Girls 
assume  the  petticoat  when  they  arrive  at  marriageable  age.  On.  the  wedding  day  guests 
arrive  in  large  numbers  to  enjoy  the  good  things  provided  for  them.  The  bridegroom  fixes 
the  branch  of  a  tree,  or  shrub,  in  the  ground,  and  brings  forward  gifts  of  pigs,  food,  and 


rholo  by  Captain  W.  Acland,  It.X. 


WOMEN    AT    MOTA    ISLAND,    NEW    HEBRIDES. 


nuts.  The  bride's  father,  or  some  special  friend  of  the  family,  makes  a  speech,  and  exhorts 
the  bridegroom  to  feed  his  wife  properly  and  treat  her  kindly.  With  such  and  similar 
admonitions  he  hands  over,  or  "gives  away,"  the  bride,  gaily  attired  and  wearing  her  new 
petticoat.  At  the  feast  which  follows  the  bridegroom  is  spared  the  trying  ordeal  of  making 
a  speech;  he  •  merely  strokes  his  father-in-law  to  show  his  gratitude  and  affection.  Then 
follows  a  sham  fight,  in  which  it  sometimes  happens  that  men  are  wounded.  On  one  side 
are  ranged  the  bride's  kinsmen,  on  the  other  those  of  the  bridegroom.  Should  a  brother 
of  the  latter  be  injured,  "compensation,"  in  the  form  of  a  present,  is  required.  When  the 
family  of  the  bride  consider  that  they  have  made  enough  show  of  resistance,  to  prove  how 
highly  they  value  her  services,  they  allow  her  to  be  taken  away.  Accordingly  she  is  dragged 
off  by  female  friends  to  the  bridegroom's  house.  Even  if  the  poor  child  is  willing  to  leave 


NEW    CALEDONIA 


her  parents,  etiquette  demands  that,  for  the  sake  of  appearances,  she  shall  make  some  show  of 
reluctance.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  bride  who  is  really  unhappy  takes  the  earliest 
opportunity  of  running  away  from  her  hushand,  and  seeks  a  home  with  a  man  she  likes 
better.  In  such  a  case,  if  the  parents  perceive  that  nothing  will  induce  her  to  return  to  her 
injured  husband,  they  offer  him  a  pig  as  solatium,  to  soothe  his  wounded  feelings;  and  there 
the  matter  ends.  We  are  indebted  to  Captain  W.  Acland  for  the  two  excellent  photographs 
reproduced  on  pages  40  and  41.  At  the  Santa  Cruz  (or  Queen  Charlotte)  Islands,  between  the 
Solomon  Islands  and  the  New  Hebrides  group,  we  find  the  same  custom  of  infant  betrothal. 
The  father,  without  telling  the  boy,  seeks  a  bride  for  his  son.  Some  time  elapses  before  the 
son  is  told  that  a  girl  is  engaged  for  him.  His  parents  do  not  say  who  she  is,  but  only  warn 


Photo  by  Captain  W.  Acland, 


A   GROUP   OF   NATIVES,    PENTECOST   ISLAND. 


him  that  he  must  not  go  near  the  particular  house  in  which  she  lives  —  for  it  is  not 
allowed  to  betrothed  ones  to  meet.  Youths  sometimes  show  great  reluctance  to  marry  the 
brides  thus  chosen  for  them. 

NEW  CALEDONIA. 

A  LITTLE  to  the  south  of  the  New  Hebrides  lies  the  island  known  as  New  Caledonia.  Its 
inhabitants  appear  to  be  distinctly  Papuan,  having  dark  skins  and  frizzly  hair;  but  here  again 
there  is  evidence  of  intercourse  with  the  brown  Polynesian  race.  There  are  many  tribes,  each 
having  its  chief.  The  people  —  Kanakas,  as  the  French  call  them  (though  the  term  is  used 
very  loosely)  —  wear  very  little  clothing,  have  no  bows  and  arrows,  and  were  all  cannibals 


4-2 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


when  the  French  first  colonised  the  island.  They  are  fast  disappearing,  owing  to  constant 
warfare,  the  introduction  of  drinking  habits,  and  the  practice  *  of  abortion.  Their  number 
now  is  less  than  22,000,  a  great  decrease  since  the  middle  of  the  present  century. 


NEW  ZEALAND. 

IN  the  year  1840,  when  the  islands  of  New  Zealand  were  first  colonised  by  England,  they 
were  inhabited  by  the  Maori  race,  who  were  then  much  more  numerous  than  now.  It  would 
seem  that  the  Maoris  are  dying  out — not  because  they  are  vicious,  but  because  they  are  very 
filthy  and  do  not  know  how  to  make  a  proper  use  of  clothes.  An  appalling  number  of  deaths 
occur  annually  from  what  may  be  called  "galloping  consumption,"  and  there  is  no  doubt 
.that  the  misuse  of  clothes  is  responsible  for  much  of  this  terrible  waste  of  life.  A  Maori 
woman,  visiting  town,  parades  the  streets  muffled  up  to  the  eyes  in  flannels,  furs,  rugs,  and 
wraps  of  every  description.  On  returning  home,  these  are  all  cast  aside  and  replaced  by 
a  thin  cotton  bodice  and  a  chintz  petticoat.  Thus  scantily  clothed,  she  squats  down  before 
a  fire  outside  the  house,  and  cooks  the  family  meal.  It  is  much  the  same  with  the  men:  one 
day  a  thick  woollen  shirt,  the  next  a  thin  cotton  one.  Overcoats  appear,  by  a  curious 
perversion,  to  be  worn  in  summer  rather  than  in  winter.  The  favourite  place  for  lounging 
about  is  one  with  plenty  of  damp  grass,  and  the  most  popular  building  site  the  edge  of  a 
swamp!  We  need  not  be  surprised  that  habits  such  as  these  cause  a  heavy  death-rate. 

In  the  year  1840  the  number  of  Maoris  was  probably  120,000;  in  1856  it  had  fallen  to 
65,000;  in  1874,  to  45,740;  in  1886,  to  41,432;  and  the  last  census  (1896)  puts  down  the 
number  of  natives  and  half-castes  at  39,834,  exclusive  of  2,259  half-castes  living  with  the 
Europeans.  Peschel  remarks  that  English  grasses  are  spreading  with  great  rapidity  and 
supplanting  the  indigenous  vegetation.  The  native  rat  is  being  replaced  by  the  Norwegian 

variety,  our  house-sparrow  is  now  very  common, 
and  nearly  everything  native  is  disappearing. 
The  people  say,  "As  the  white  man's  rat  has 
extirpated  our  rat,  so  the  European  fly  is 
driving  out  our  flv.  The  foreign  clover  is 
killing  our  ferns,  and  the  Maori  himself  will 
disappear  before  the  white  man!" 

It  is  a  pity  that  this  singularly  fine  race 
are  destined  to  die  out.  They  are  tall,  power- 
ful, and  well  made;  the  colour  of  the  skin  is 
brown,  as  with  all  Polynesians,  and  never  black, 
although  some  are  darker  than  others.  The 
variation  in  type  puzzled  ethnologists  until  it 


was  perceived  that  there  has  been  here,  as  in 
most  other  parts  of  the  world,  a  certain  amount 
of  fusion.  Thus,  many  Maoris  are  of  fair  com- 
plexion, with  straight  hair,  and  the  character- 
istic features  of  a  handsome  Polynesian;  but 
others  are  to  be  found  with  a  much  darker 
skin,  curly  or  almost  frizzly  hair,  the  long 
and  broad  arched  nose  of  the  Papuan  of  New 
Guinea;  or  it  may  be  with  the  coarse,  thick 
features  of  the  lower  Melanesian  races.  The 
facts  can  only  be  explained  on  the  supposition 
that  when  the  Maoris  first  came  to  these  islands 
they  discovered  an  indigenous  Melanesian  race. 
Probably  the  men  were  soon  exterminated,  but 


Photo  by  Valentine  <k  Song,  Ltd.} 

A    MAORI    GIRL    AND    CHILD. 


[Dundee. 


Photo  by  Valentine  <&  Sons,  Ltd.} 


[Dundee. 


A    MAORI    WOMAN. 
43 


44 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


it  is  very  likely  that  the  better-looking  women  were 
spared,  and  became  wives  or  concubines  of  the 
victors.  Tradition  confirms  the  anthropological  theory, 
and  so  we  may  consider  that  matter  settled.  While 
some  authorities  hold  that  the  Polynesian  immigra- 
tion took  place  about  3,000  years  ago,  others  give 
a  much  more  recent  date,  and  native  traditions  seern 
to  show  that  not  more  than  600  years  have  elapsed 
since  the  first  invasion.  The  earliest  colonists  prob- 
ably came  from  some  of  the  islands  between  Samoa 
and  Tahiti.  The  tradition  is  that  they  came  from  a 
place  called  Hawaiki:  "The  seed  of  our  coming  is 
from  Hawaiki,  the  seed  of  our  nourishing,  the  seed 
of  mankind."  This  somewhat  mythical  region  might 
be  Samoa  or  Tonga.  The  language  of  the  Maoris 
appears  to  be  most  nearly  related  to  that  of  Baro- 
tonga,  and  tradition  points  to  that  island  as  the 
place  where  the  canoes  for  the  expedition  were  built — 
double  canoes  they  were,  and  their  names  survive. 
The  legend  still  recalls  how  the  seeds  of  sweet 
potatoes,  together  with  taro,  gourds,  karaka,  berries, 
dogs,  parrots,  rats,  and  sacred  red  paint,  were  put  on 
board  the  canoes,  which  were  scattered  in  the  night 
by  a  storm.  The  north  island  was  the  one  first 
colonised.  The  reason  for  this  migration,  according 
to  the  tradition,  was  a  civil  war,  which  devastated 
Hawaiki.  A  chief,  Ngalme  by  name,  was  driven  to 
flight;  after  a  long  journey  he  reached  New  Zealand, 
and  returned  with  pieces  of  jade  and  the  bones  of 
a  gigantic  bird.  These  evidently  belonged  to  the 
moa,  now  extinct,  which  attained  a  height  of  about 
12  feet,  and  was  something  like  an  ostrich.  (See  the 
writer's  "Extinct  Monsters.") 

The  Maori's  chief  article  of  dress  is  a  long  mat, 
in  which  he  muffles  himself  up  to  the  neck  (see  illus- 
tration, page  45).  The  mats  are  of  various  textures, 
but  are  always  made  from  what  is  called  "New  Zealand  flax"  (Phormium  tenax).  The  fibres 
of  this  plant  (one  of  the  Liliacece]  are  strong  and  fine,  and  when  properly  dressed  have  a 
silky  look.  The  mats  are  dyed  with  various  colours,  obtained  from  bark  or  from  roots.  Birds' 
feathers  are  added  for  ornament.  The  natives  also  dress  the  skins  of  dogs,  and  make  valuable 
cloaks  of  them.  The  men -tattoo  the  face  and  parts  of  the  body  (see  illustrations,  pages  45  and  47), 
but  the  women  tattoo  only  on  the  chin.  The  reader  who  wishes  to  learn  more  about  the  art  of 
tattooing  as  formerly  practised  by  these  people  should  consult  Major-General  Eobley's  interesting 
work  "Moko." 

The  Maoris  have  undoubtedly  developed  a  higher  state  of  civilisation  than  other  peoples  of  the 
Pacific  who  belong  to  the  same  race  of  brown  Polynesians.  Perhaps  this  may  be  accounted  for 
by  the  fact  that  life  is  not  so  easily  supported  in  New  Zealand  as  in  tropical  Pacific  islands, 
where  bread-fruits,  cocoanuts,  and  bananas  flourish  with  so  little  attention  on  the  part  of 
man.  '  The  climate  also  is  much  more  variable.  The  people  who  settled  there  found  life 
harder;  and  this  struggle  with  nature  was,  no  doubt,  the  means  of  drawing  out  capabilities 
and  talents  which  were  previously  more  or  less  dormant.  They  appear  to  have  brought  with 
them  the  dog,  which  was  used  for  food,  but  not  the  pig.  The  only  plants  they  cultivated 


MAORI    GIRL. 


Photo  by  Valentine  &  Sons,  Ltd.] 


[Dundee. 


PATARAGURAI,   A   MAORI   CHIEF. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


were  the  sweet  potato,  taro,  and  the  gourd;  ferns  and  some  other  plants  supplied  edible 
roots,  and  certain  berries  and  fruits  were  also  used.  The  sea  and  the  rivers  yielded  them 
fish.  Tradition  says  that  they  hunted  the  huge  moa,  above  referred  to,  and  in  time  they 
became  skilful  in  hunting,  in  fishing,  and  in  agriculture. 

The  native  children  are  very  interesting,  full  of  intelligence,  quick  in  learning  their 
lessons  at  school,  and  unusually  free  and  open  in  their  manner;  they  live  as  much  with  the 
men  as  with  the  women,  and  hence  their  faculties  are  sharpened  at  an  early  age. 

Until  recently  the  code  of  Maori  morals  was  very  lax,  and  is  still  to  some  extent,  a 
young  girl  being  permitted  the  utm'ost  freedom  until  she  is  married.  But  after  marriage  she 
is  a  model  of  constancy.  This  vicious  system  of  free  intercourse,  exercised  at  a  very  early 
age,  is  very  bad  physically  as  well  as  morally,  and  checks  the  healthy  development  of  the 
body.  But  it  carries  no  reproach,  and  the  girls  are  wonderfully  modest  and  childlike  in 
manner.  Suicide  is  very  common,  for  these  people  firmly  hold  death  to  be  better  than 
disgrace,  and,  like  the  Chinese,  sometimes  kill  themselves  under  very  slight  provocation. 

Each  tribe  has  its  own  great  chief,  while  an  inferior  chief  presides  over  every  clan.  Broadly 
speaking,  there  are  three  grades  of  society — first  the  nobility,  then  the  freemen,  and  lastly 
the  slaves.  The  name  Rangatira  is  applied  to  the  native  nobility,  and  by  courtesy  also  to 
officers,  missionaries,  and  other  white  men  who  may  be  placed  in  any  position  of  authority. 

The  Maori  man  is  a  very  lazy  mortal. 
In  war  he  is  all  fire  and  spirit,  but 
in  piping  times  of  peace  he  lounges 
about,  and  will  do  no  work  if  he 
can  help  it.  The  real  work  is  done 
by  women  and  slaves,  whose  drudgery 
makes  them  grow  old  prematurely. 
Those  who  preserve  their  beauty 
longest  are  the  daughters  of  wealthy 
chiefs,  who  can  afford  slaves  to  do 
the  hard  work. 

Formerly  the  Maoris  wore 
greatly  given  to  cannibalism.  The 
real  reason  of  this  revolting  practice 
was,  as  has  been  stated  in  the 
previous  chapter,  the  superstitious 
notion  that  any  one  who  ate  the 
flesh  of  another  became  endowed 
with  all  the  best  qualities  of  that 
person.  A  chief  would  sometimes 
eat  only  the  left  eye  of  his  enemy, 
that  being  supposed  to  be  the  seat 
of  his  soul.  To  drink  his  blood  was 
to  imbibe  his  courage  and  spirit. 
The  practice  must  also  be  regarded 
as  symbolising  a  man's  final  triumph 
over  his  enemy. 

There  was  a  good  deal  of  head- 
hunting in  old  days.  Years  ago  a 
large  number  of  preserved  Maori 
heads  were  brought  into  Europe. 
(A  collection  was  recently  exhibited 
at  a  meeting  in  the  Anthropological 
Institute  in  Hanover  Square.)  In 


Photo  by  Burton  Bros.] 

A    MAORI    MAX    AND    HIS    WIFE. 


Photo  by   Valentine  &  Sons,  Ltd.] 


[Dundee. 


POROTITI,    A    MAORI    CHIEF. 
47 


48  THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 

response  to  the  demand  of  European  collectors  the  supply  increased  to  an  alarming  extent. 
No  man  with  a  well-tattooed  face  was  safe.  Slaves  were  frequently  killed  for  the  sake  of  their 
heads,  which  were  afterwards  tattooed  in  the  same  way  as  men  of  high  rank.  A  chief  once 
said  to  an  English  purchaser  of  heads:  "Choose  which  of  these  heads  you  like  best" — pointing 
to  some  of  his  own  people — "and  when  you  come  back  I  will  have  it  dried  and  ready  for  your 
acceptance."  Needless  to  say,  the  offer  was  refused. 

The  extraordinary  system  of  taboo,  or  tapu,  which  extends  all  through  Polynesia,  with 
local  variations,  was  formerly  in  great  force  among  the  Maoris.  Briefly,  it  is  a  law  of 
prohibition,  as  the  word  implies.  In  countries  where  an  organised  government  has  been 
established,  the  taboo  is  unnecessary  (except  for  purely  social  purposes;  as,  for  example,  in 
connection  with  clubs  or  social  gatherings).  But  with  a  primitive  people,  living  only  under 
chiefs,  the  system  takes  the  place  of  an  elaborate  code  of  laws.  The  taboo  in  Polynesia 
protects  both  property  and  morals,  the  former  more  than  the  latter.  For  example:  when 
a  man  has  carefully  cultivated  a  field  of  sweet  potatoes,  he  sends  for  the  priest,  who  lays  a 
taboo  on  the  field,  and  henceforth  no  man,  woman,  or  child  dare  to  venture  thereon  again; 
a  canoe  is  hauled  up  on  the  beach  and  left  unguarded,  but  the  owner  need  have  no  fear 
lest  any  one  should  steal  it,  because  he  has  already  placed  on  it  the  taboo  mark.  With  regard 
to  morals,  a  married  woman  is  taboo  to  all  men  but  her  husband;  so  is  a  young  girl  to 
all  except  her  betrothed.  Another  taboo  is  connected  with  death.  If  a  man  falls  overboard 
from  a  canoe  and  is  drowned,  that  canoe  henceforth  may  never  be  used  again;  it  is  taboo. 

The  head  of  a  chief  is  so  sacred  that  no  one  is  allowed  even  to  make  mention  of  it! 
Europeans  have  sometimes  given  very  great  offence  by  disregarding  this  strange  superstition. 

The  Maoris  have  no  written  language,  but  their  history  has  been  faithfully  preserved  in  numerous 
lengthy  songs,  legends,  and  traditions,  handed  down  with  the  utmost  care  from  one  generation  to 
another.  They  gave  names  to  stars,  to  birds,  plants,  rocks,  and  even  insects.  They  excelled  greatly  in 
oratory.  In  bygone  days  every  chief  was  expected  to  be  an  orator  and  a  poet,  as  well  as  a  hunter. 


Photo  by  Burton  Bros.\ 


[Dunedin. 


A    FAMILY    GROUP    OF    MAORIS. 


CHAPTER    III. 
AUSTRALIA   AND   TASMANIA. 


AUSTRALIA. 

JUST  as  the  wild  animals  inhabiting  Australia,  such  as  kangaroos  and  wombats,  are  peculiar 
and  always  of  a  low  type,  so  are  its  dark-coloured  natives.  This  the  reader  will  readily 
perceive  for  himself  on  glancing  at  the  accompanying  illustrations.  Their  features  are  coarse 
and  repulsive.  We  must  look  upon  the  Aborigines  of  this  region  as  a  people  recalling  the 
earlier  stages  in  the  history  of  the  human  race — a  highly  valuable  and  interesting  suggestion 
of  primeval  man.  Here  may  we  find,  as  it  were,  a  series  of  "  Prehistoric  Peeps,"  reminding 
us  iu  passing  of  Mr.  E.  T.  Eeed's  clever  drawings  in  Punch  a  few  years  ago.  These  people 
may  be  said  to  represent  one  of  the  bottom  rungs  of  the  ladder  of  human  progress.  They 
are  unlike  the  inhabitants  of  any  surrounding  islands  or  countries,  and  from  their  general 
similarity  in  various  parts  of  the  Australian  Continent  have  been  regarded  by  some  writers 
as  a  single  race,  distinct  from  the  Malay,  the  frizzly-haired  Papuan  of  New  Guinea,  and 
the  Negro  of  Africa.  Such  is  the  view  of  Dr.  Alfred  Eussel  Wallace.  Both  Keane  and 
Ratzel,  however,  consider  them  somewhat  mixed.  Their  colour  is  not  black,  but  a  deep 
copper  or  chocolate.  As  might  be  expected,  they  are  a  very  hairy  people.  The  hair  is 
plentiful,  not  only  on  the  head,  but  on  the  whole  body,  especially  on  the  chest  and  back. 
The  infants  are  of  a  much  lighter  colour,  and  covered  on  the  neck  and  back  with  a  slight 


Photo  by  Kerry  &  Co.] 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


coat  of  soft  fur.  The  hair 
of  the  head  is  long,  usually 
wavy  or  curly,  either  black 
or  very  deep  auburn.  All 
the  men  have  beards, 
whiskers,  and  moustaches. 
"You  naked  cheeks!"  is  a 
taunt  they  commonly  apply 
to  beardless  people. 

In  height  Australians 
are  not  much  inferior  to 
Europeans.  They  are  mus- 
cular, but  with  slender  arms 
and  legs,  owing  to  want  of  a 
good  and  regular  supply  of 
food.  The  head  is  generally 
rather  long  and  narrow,  with 
high  cheek-bones.  The  lower 
portion  of  the  forehead  pro- 
jects strongly,  producing  the 
overhanging  eyebrows  seen  in 
our  illustrations;  the  upper 
part  recedes  rapidly.  The 
lower  jaw  is  decidedly  promi- 
nent, and  this  is  regarded  by 
all  anthropologists  as  a  strong 
characteristic  of  the  lowest 
human  types,  such  as  the 
African  dwarfs  or  the 
Negritos  of  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula. The  mouth  is  large, 
with  thick  lips.  A  conspicuous  feature  is  the  nose,  which  is  so  deeply  depressed  at  the  root 
as  to  cause  the  eyes  to  appear  to  be  drawn  together;  it  is  very  broad  at  the  nostrils. 

Stokes,  who  was  very  familiar  with  the  country,  says,  "  The  Australians  vary  as  curiously 
as  their  soil."  Others  have  expressed  their  astonishment  at  the  peculiar  differences  between 
the  natives  of  various  districts.  Thus,  Tasman,  from  whom  Tasmania  takes  it  name,  in  the 
year  1686  found  dark,  woolly-haired  people  on  the  north-west  coast.  Cook,  in  1770,  saw  on  the 
north-east  coast  some  well-built  men,  with  straight  hair,  of  a  chocolate-brown  colour,  whose  noses 
were  not  very  flat,  nor  were  their  lips  very  thick.  Among  the  Aborigines  of  the  south-east 
there  were  women  as  light  as  mulattoes. 

Earl  has  remarked  that  "a  circle  of  500  miles  round  Port  Essington  would  enclose  an 
equal  number  of  tribes,  varying  from  deep  black  to  the  reddish  yellow  of  the  Polynesians." 
Some  are  darker,  some  lighter;  some  are  straight-haired  like  the  Malays,  others  frizzly- 
haired  like  Papuans.  Even  Wallace,  however,  admits  that  there  are  some  signs  of  inter- 
mixture in  the  north  with  Malays  from  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  with  Papuans  from  New 
Guinea.  But  this  has  had  little  or  no  effect  on  the  people. 

It  has  not  yet  been  finally  decided  to  what  branch  of  the  human  family  the  Australians 
belong — that  is  a  difficult  problem;  but  they  are  clearly  not  Negroes,  nor  Mongols,  nor 
Papuans,  nor  Malays.  Keaue  and  others  consider  them  to  be  Caucasian  like  ourselves,  and 
identical  with  the  Dravidians  of  India  (see  the  Veddas  in  Chapter  VIII.).  Perhaps  the  reader 
who  studies  our  illustrations  of  these  people  may  find  that  they  remind  him,  in  a  general 
way,  of  the  lowest  and  coarsest  types  of  humanity  to  be  found  in  England  at  the  present  time. 


Photo  by  Kerry  &  Co.] 

A    NATIVE    OF    PRINCE    OF    WALES    ISLAND. 


[Sydney. 


AUSTRALIA 


The  advent  of  the  white  man  in  Australia  has  brought  ruin  to  the  blackfellows,  and 
the  treatment  they  have  received  at  our  hands  can  only  be  described  as  shameful. 

When  Europeans  first  settled  in  Australia,  the  native  population  was  probably  about 
150,000  persons.  It  has  been  rapidly  diminishing  ever  since  those  days;  and  no  wonder, 
for  the  whites  have  taken  the  best  of  the  land  and  destroyed  much  of  the  game  on  which 
the  blacks  chiefly  lived.  Civilisation,  alas!  brought  disease  and  vice  in  its  train.  Consumption, 
measles,  small-pox,  have  had  a  large  share  in  the  work  of  destruction.  The  adoption  of 
clothing,  with  all  primitive  peoples,  undoubtedly  induces  a  great  deal  of  lung  disease.  This 
may  at  first  appear  incredible,  but  it  has  been  clearly  proved.  There  is  a  right  way  and  a 
wrong  way  in  everything;  and  clothing,  Avhich  is  a  great  protection  if  rightly  used,  is  only 
a  source  of  discomfort  and  danger  to  the  creature  that  is  unaccustomed  to  it.  The  poor 
ignorant  savage  does  not  appreciate  it,  and  would  much  rather  be  without  clothes.  When  he 
does  adopt  clothes,  he  frequently  casts  them  aside  just  when  they  might  be  of  the  greatest 
service  in  protecting  his  body  from  cold.  Lying  down  to  sleep  at  night  in  a  damp  place 
without  the  covering  he  has  worn  throughout  the  day,  he  courts  the  very  diseases  which  are 
most  fatal  to  native  races.  It  is  just  the  same  in  New  Guinea,  in  Polynesia,  and  in  most  of 
the  Pacific  Islands,  where  consumption  is  working  terrible  havoc. 

In    the     year     1851    the      , 

number  of  Australian  Abori- 
gines was  estimated  at  55,000. 
In  1893  they  were  put  down 
at  from  30,000  to  40,000. 
The  Government  has  taken 
some  steps  to  endeavour  to 
mitigate  the  grave  evils  in- 
flicted on  the  native  popula- 
tion— evils  for  which  the 
white  people  were  clearly 
responsible.  But  its  action 
came  too  late.  Between  the 
years  1821  and  1842  the  sum 
of  £80,000  was  spent  in  the 
endeavour  to  protect  and 
improve  the  condition  of  the 
natives.  The  Society  for  the 
Protection  of  Aborigines  has 
also  been  usefully  engaged 
in  this  work.  Native  schools 
were  founded  in  Adelaide  and 
elsewhere,  and  liberally  sup- 
ported. But  now  the  Adelaide 
tribe  is  extinct. 

Inferior  races  must  of 
course  give  way  and  make 
room  for  those  that  are  more 
highly  civilised;  but  it  is 
sad  to  think  how  much 
cruelty,  vice,  and  wickedness 
is  involved  in  the  process. 
When  Mr.  Lloyd  first  landed 
in  Geelong,  in  the  year  1837, 
the  Barrabool  tribe  numbered 


Photo  by  Kerry  tfc  Co.} 


[Sydney. 


A    GIN    OF   THE    WORKII    TRIBE,    GILBERT    RIVER. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


nearly  300;  and  fine-looking  fellows  they  were.  When  he  went  away  in  1853,  there  were 
not  many  left.  Seeing  so  few  natives  about,  he  began  to  make  inquiries  about  some  of  his 
dark  friends  of  early  days.  The  reply  he  received  is  so  pathetic  that  we  give  as  far  as 
possible  the  very  words:  "Aha,  Mitter  Looyed!  Ballyyang  dead,  Jaga-jaga  dead,  Panigerong 
dead  [and  many  others  they  named].  The  stranger  white  man  came  in  his  great  swimming 
vessel,  and  landed  with  his  large  animals  and  his  little  animals.  He  came  with  his  '  boom- 
booms '  [double-barrelled  guns]  and  his  tents,  and  the  great  white  stranger  took  away  the 
long-inherited  hunting-grounds  of  the  poor  Barrabool  coolies  and  their  children."  Then, 
weeping,  shaking  their  heads,  and  holding  up  their  hands  in  the  bitterness  of  their  sorrow, 
they  exclaimed:  "Coolie,  coolie,  coolie!  Where  are  our  coolies  now?  Where  are  our  fathers, 
mothers,  brothers,  sisters?  Dead!  all  gone!  dead!" 

In  most  places  the  blacks  go  about  almost  naked  in  the  summer  season,  even  in  Central 
and  Southern  Australia,  where  the  climate  is  changeable.  What  little  they  wear  partakes 
more  of  the  nature  of  ornament  than  clothing.  But  during  the  cold  season  garments  are 
necessary.  The  chief  article  of  a  man's  wardrobe  is  a  girdle  of  plaited  grass  or  bast; 
sometimes  the  hair  of  an  animal  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  or  even  the  hair  of  another  man, 
in  which  case  it  is  generally  considered  a  charm.  Women  at  times  wear  an  apron  of  emus' 
feathers.  A  man's  girdle  serves  to  carry  his  digging-stick,  his  axe,  or  his  boomerang.  Hats 
are  altogether  dispensed  with,  but  the  head  may  be  decorated  with  teeth,  fish-bones,  feathers, 
or  the  bushy  tail  of  an  animal.  Some  twist  the  hair  with  string  painted  red,  and 
decorated  with  the  feathers  of  an  emu,  a  cockatoo,  or  the  tail  of  a  dog.  The  younger  men 
are  particularly  fond  of  ornaments  for  the  neck,  made  of  mother-of-pearl,  teeth  of  various 
kinds,  crabs'  claws,  bits  of  reed  or  straw,  but  the  old  men  despise  such  things.  In  the  south 
during  the  cold  season  men  and  women  cover  themselves  with  the  skins  of  kangaroos,  wearing 
them  like  sacks.  They  have  no  sense  of  shame;  clothing  and  modesty,  in  their  eyes,  are  not 
connected.  There  is  a  story  of  a  girl  who  was  presented  by  a  lady  with  a  white  petticoat. 
This  she  wore  and  displayed  with  some  pride  to  her  own  people;  they,  however,  only  jeered 
at  her  for  wearing  clothes  like  the  white  strangers,  and  the  consequence  was  that  in  a  few 
days  the  petticoat  was  laid  aside  and  the  girl  went  about  naked  as  before. 

The  people  are  very  fond  of  painting  their  bodies.  Red,  white,  and  black  are  their  favourite 
colours.  They  paint  their  small  wooden  shields  with  the  same  colours.  Some  of  our  illustra- 
tions show  the  stripes  or 
bauds  of  colour  on  the  body. 
Red  ochre  is  much  used.  The 
people  of  the  south-east  used 
to  paint  their  bodies  with 
circles,  squares,  and  crosses. 
Corpses  are  painted  red.  In 
some  tribes  only  the  elder 
men  are  allowed  to  use  the 
red  ochre,  the  youths  powder- 
ing their  hair  with  red  earth. 
Instead  of  the  tattooing  so 
largely  practised  by  Malays 
and  many  other  people,  we 
find  long  oblique  scars  in  the 
region  of  the  breast,  the  back, 
and  the  shoulders,  but  seldom 
below  the  waist.  (See  illus- 
trations.) 
Photo  by  M,:  ii.  p/iiinj>*.]  "^ :  :  ~  '{.Bristol'."'  Before  a  girl  can  come 

NATIVES   OF   RIVER   ENDEAVOUR,   NORTH    QUEENSLAND.  OUt,"    aS    W6    should    Say that 


AUSTRALIA 


53 


Photo  bij  Mr.  li.  Phillips] 

NATIVES    OF    RIVER    ENDEAVOUR,    NORTH    QUEENSLAND. 


[Bristol. 


is,  before  she  can  be  con- 
sidered a  woman  and 
marriageable— she  must  go 
through  a  very  painful  opera- 
tion. Great  gashes  are  cut 
across  her  back  in  horizontal 
lines  Avith  a  sharp-edged  flint 
or  a  shell.  The  blood  that 
flows  out  freely  is  Aviped  off 
with  bunches  of  grass,  or  Avith 
green  boughs  warmed  near 
the  fire.  After  some  Aveeks 
the  wounds  have  healed  up, 
and  the  cicatrices  are  con- 
sidered to  enhance  her 
natural  charms,  if  she  has 
any.  Sometimes  the  belly 
and  the  arms  are  similarly 
adorned.  During  the  opera- 
tion of  making  these  scars 
the  girl's  nearest  relations 
express  their  sympathy  by  shedding  tears  and  uttering  loud  lamentations. 

Marriage  is  a  very  simple  affair,  and  a  wife  is  either  obtained  by  purchase  from  her 
father  or  brother,  or  else  carried  off  by  main  force.  In  the  latter  case  the  usual  practice  is 
to  lie  in  wait  for  the  girl  at  night,  stun  her  by  a  heavy  blow  on  the  head  with  a  club,  and 
drag  her  off  to  a  place  of  retreat.  In  accordance  with  customs  not  yet  fully  understood,  girls 
are  betrothed  to  certain  men  as  soon  as  they  are  born.  This  "engagement"  is  considered 
so  binding  that  a  Avoman  breaking  it  is  killed — and  often  eaten;  while  the  offending  man 
is  punished  Avith  a  severe  Avound  from  a  spear.  The  Avives  have  a  hard  time  of  it,  and  are 
cruelly  treated,  being  often  beaten  or  speared.  To  kill  a  gin  (wife)  is  thought  no  offence, 
and  few  women  are  free  from  frightful  scars.  The  men  are  not  insensible  to  female  charms. 
A  young  Avoman  at  all 
celebrated  for  her  beauty 
usually  undergoes  a  series 
of  captivities  to  different 
masters.  She  never  stays 
long  with  one  man,  be- 
cause another  steals  her 
away.  It  is  her  sad  fate 
to  be  a  Avanderer  among 
strange  families,  and  to  be 
the  cause,  like  Helen  of 
Troy,  of  many  a  fight. 
When  women  are  scarce, 
the  men  make  raids  on 
other  tribes.  WidoAvs  be- 
come the  property  of  the 
tribe.  Wives  are  some- 
times lent  to  friends  or 
strangers. 

In     the     dry     season 
many   parts    of   Australia 


Mr.   K.  Phillip] 
NATIVE    GIRLS    OF    RIVER    ENDEAVOUR,    NORTH    QUEENSLAND. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


will  not  support  human  life;  hence  the  Aborigines  lead  rather  a  wandering  existence.  Having 
no  beasts  of  burden,  they  are  compelled  to  carry  everything  themselves,  and  sore  burdens  are 
placed  on  the  unfortunate  women.  One  woman  usually  carries  on  her  back  the  following 
articles:  a  sack  containing  a  flat  stone  for  crushing  eatable  roots;  pieces  of  quartz  for  knives 
and  spear-heads ;  stones  for  axes;  cakes  of  gum  from  the  xanthorrlicea  or  grass-tree,  for 
mending  old  weapons  or  preparing  new  ones;  kangaroo  sinews  for  thread,  and  needles  of 
kangaroo  bone;  opossum  hair  to  make  girdles;  pieces  of  kangaroo  skin  for  polishing  the 
spears;  sharp  shells  to  serve  as  knives  and  axe-heads;  yellow  and  red  ochre  for  painting;  a 
piece  of  bark  for  making  "bast,"  ropes,  girdles;  ornaments;  tinder  for  making  fire;  some  fat 
and  a  piece  of  quartz  revered  as  a  relic,  having  been  extracted  by  the  "doctor,"  or  magician, 
from  a  sick  man;  and  besides  these  things,  she  must  carry  roots  or  fruits  collected  on  the 
road.  But  this  is  not  all,  for  between  the  sacks  and  her  own  back  she  carries  a  store  of 
undressed  hides,  and  in  her  hand  a  staff  5  or  6  feet  long,  or  a  firebrand.  Sometimes  she 
carries  her  husband's  spears  also!  One  need  not  therefore  be  surprised  that,  as  a  rule,  16  or 

18  miles  is  considered 
a  good  day's  march. 

It  can  hardly  be 
said  that  the  Austra- 
lians are  a  brave  race, 
like- Zulus,  Arabs,  or 
Sikhs;  but  here  and 
there  examples  have 
been  found  of  truly 
heroic  determination 
or  of  great  coolness. 
Self-control  they 
certainly  have  in  a 
high  degree.  To  the 
present  day  the 
natives  reverence  the 
names  of  certain 
brave  and  fiery 
leaders  who  fought 
in  many  a  desperate 
battle  with  Euro- 
peans. They  seem 
somewhat  fond  of 

fighting  among  themselves.  But  such  fights  are  not  very  deadly;  their  mode  of  warfare 
does  not,  as  a  rule,  lead  to  much  bloodshed.  One  reason  for  this  is  obvious:  every  death 
must  be  avenged,  and  therefore  they  have  the  fear  of  blood-feuds  constantly  before  their  eyes. 
They  are  very  fond  of  pouring  torrents  of  abuse  on  their  enemies  from  a  safe  distance. 
They  prefer  to  attack  from  an  ambush,  and  they  are  extremely  clever  at  dodging  spears  by 
a  sudden  and  almost  imperceptible  movement,  or  at  covering  themselves  with  their  small 
wooden  shields.  They  often  catch  a  spear  and  throw  it  back  at  the  enemy  who  hurled  it. 

The  Australian  shows  more  skill  in  the  making  of  his  weapons  than  he  does  in  making 
tents,  clothing,  or  in  cookery.  Except  in  the  extreme  north,  he  is  ignorant  of  the  bow  and 
arrow  used  by  his  neighbours  the  Malay  and  the  Papuan;  but  his  spears,  throwing-sticks, 
clubs,  and  boomerangs  are  well  made  and  very  skilfully  used.  The  wooden  spear  is  found 
everywhere.  Of  the  spears  used  in  war,  some  are  8  or  9  feet  long.  Thin  stems  of  the 
eucalyptus  are  used  for  this  purpose,  straightened  and  hardened  by  the  action  of  heat.  Some 
have  sharp  flints,  or  pieces  of  quartz,  fastened  by  gum  in  two  grooves  near  the  point.  Want 
of  space  forbids  the  writer  from  enlarging  on  the  subject  of  weapons;  but  he  would  like  to 


Photo  by  Mr.  R.  Phillip*} 

NATIVES   OF   RIVER   ENDEAVOUR,    NORTH   QUEENSLAND. 


[Bristol. 


AUSTRALIA 


55 


direct  the  reader's  attention  to  the  splendid  exhibition  of  arms,  clothing,  and  ornaments  of  all 
the  primitive  peoples  in  the  ethnographical  collection  at  the  British  Museum,  now  under  the 
care  of  Mr.  C.  H.  Eead.  The  University  of  Oxford  possesses  a  very  fine  ethnographical 
collection,  and  that  of  the  Blackmore  Museum  at  Salisbury  is  also  most  admirable.  Heavy 
spears  the  Australian  Aborigines  can  throw  by  hand  a  distance  of  from  50  to  70  feet; 
light  spears,  hurled  by  means  of  a  throwing-stick,  may  travel  as  far  as  100  yards,  for  this 
implement  gives  a  powerful  leverage.  Their  accuracy  in  throwing  is  wonderful. 

"We  must  say  a  few  words  about  that  remarkable  Australian  weapon  the  boomerang.  It 
is  a  flat  piece  of  hard  wood,  about  as  large  as  a  scimitar  (though  sometimes  smaller),  bent  in 
the  middle,  flat  on  one  side  and  a  little  rounded  on  the  other.  For  this  purpose  pieces  of 
wood  that  are  naturally  curved  are  selected;  hence  their  strength.  The  boomerangs  used 
in  warfare  are  large  and  heavy,  with  pointed  ends,  and  capable  of  inflicting  a  serious  wound. 
In  hunting,  and  especially  for  killing  birds,  a  smaller  boomerang,  the  ends  of  which  are 
slightly  twisted  in  opposite  directions,  is  used.  It  has  the  remarkable  property  of  changing 
its  course  while  in  the  air,  and  finally  returning  to  the  thrower.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
say  that  the  boomerang, 
while  travelling  forward 
with  great  speed,  revolves 
rapidly  on  its  own  axis, 
and  takes  a  slanting 
direction.  In  the  use  of 
this  weapon  dexterity  is 
required  rather  than 
strength. 

Some  of  the  Austra- 
lian Aborigines  are  trog- 
lodytes, or  dwellers  in 
caves,  like  the  prehistoric 
men  of  Europe  (see  the 
writer's  "  Prehistoric  Man 
and  Beast").  But  caves 
are  only  to  be  found  in 
certain  districts.  More- 
over, as  we  have  already 
remarked,  the  Aborigines 
lead  a  rather  wandering 
life.  They  usually  erect 
rude  huts  or  screens, 
constructed  of  whatever 
material  happens  to  be 
at  hand  —  tAvigs  and 
bushes,  covered  with 
bark,  turf,  or  leaves. 
These  shelters  are  purely 
temporary,  but  serve  for 
a  few  weeks  or  months, 
until  the  family  moves 
on.  In  the  north  and 
north-west,  where  Papuan 
influence  evidently  comes 

in,    they    build     regular  ^,,.y  &  Co_  \.Svd,*y. 

huts,  as  high  as  a  man,  A  NATIVE  WARRIOR,  PRINCE  OF  WALES  ISLAND. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


yam 
but 


and  capable  of  holding  ten  per- 
sons. These  they  construct  with 
stakes  covered  with  clay.  So 
backward  are  these  people  in 
civilisation  that  many  of  the  coast 
tribes  know  nothing  of  navigation. 
On  the  north-west  coast  we  find 
only  simple  rafts,  made  of  man- 
grove branches  tied  together.  In 
Southern  Australia  we  meet  with 
canoes  made  from  the  bark  of  the 
eucalyptus.  Though  these  are 
very  light  and  frail,  natives  will 
venture  out  to  sea  in  them  for 
several  miles.  In  New  South 
Wales  they  use  tree-stems  hol- 
lowed out  by  the  action  of  fire, 
like  the  neolithic  men  of  Europe. 
Cook  saw  boats  of  this  kind  13 
feet  long. 

Knowing  nothing  of  agricul- 
ture, and  having  no  flocks  and 
herds,  the  blacks  can  hardly  be 
said  to  have  an  ample  larder.  Of 
course  they  prefer  animal  food, 
but  game  is  not  always  to  be  had. 
Sometimes  they  devour  their 
dogs,  which  originally  were  dingoes, 
but  now  are  mostly  crossed  with 
European  breeds.  They  are  other- 
wise very  kind  to  these  domestic 
pets,  the  women  even  suckling  the 
young  ones.  There  are  very  few 
animals  that  they  will  not  eat. 
Occasionally  they  get  a  dead  whale 
or  catch  a  dugong.  Besides  the 
marsupials  of  their  country,  such 
as  kangaroos,  wombats,  and  opos- 
sums, they  eat  birds  and  eggs, 
lizards,  snakes,  frogs,  tadpoles,  and 
the  Iarva3  of  insects.  White  ants 
are  eaten  alive,  and  a  certain  moth, 
which  is  very  abundant,  is  con- 
sidered a  great  delicacy.  Snakes 
are  also  much  appreciated.  Tad- 
poles are  fried  on  grass.  Certain 
roots  and  fruit  are  used  as  dessert 
after  meat.  Many  kinds  of  shell- 
fish are  eaten.  Of  the  vegetables 

•IVE    OF   TWEED    RIVER.  Qne     Qf    ^     ^     ^     &     ^.^     ^ 

.     The  roots  of  the  bulrush  are  roasted  and  kneaded  into  cakes.     Fruits  are  not  abundant, 
the  young  leaves  of  the  grass- tree  are  much  eaten,  as  it  grows  abundantly.     The  people  are 


From  Spencer  and  Giilen' 


Tribes  of  Central  Australia'1''  (by  permission). 

AN   OLD   MAN   OF   THE   ARUNTA  TRIBE. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


very  fond  of  honey  (from  the  banksia  and  zanthorrhwa),  and  show  great  ingenuity  in  tracking 
bees  to  their  nests.  A  certain  kind  of  eucalyptus  provides  them  with  "  peppermint-gum,"  from 
which  they  make  a  sweet  drink  by  adding  water.  They  appear  to  have  had  no  intoxicating 
drink  before  the  advent  of  our  colonists,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  a  sort  of  mead  in  New 
South  Wales,  mentioned  by  Braim.  They  have  no  objection  to  rotten  eggs,  or  even  the 
contents  of  the  intestines  of  animals.  Their  capacity  for  eating  meat  is  almost  incredible. 
When  a  man  is  fortunate  enough  to  .catch  a  kangaroo,  he  will  go  on  eating,  with  short 
intervals,  until  he  has  consumed  it  all.  The  lazy  disposition  of  the  Aboriginal  makes  him 
alternate  between  gluttony  and  starvation. 

Cannibalism  used  to  be  a  frequent  occurrence,  but  was  not  universal.  Fat  people  were 
liable  to  be  stolen  and  eaten;  for  this  reason  a  man  who  had  a  fat  wife  was  unwilling  to 
allow  her  to  wander  about  alone.  An  "unprotected  female"  of  that  sort  might  be  made 
away  with  to  replenish  the  larder  of  some  neighbouring  tribe!  Human  skulls  are  used  as 
drinking-cups. 

The  natives  have  special  words  to  denote  every  minutest  portion  of  the  human  body. 
Their  language  is  in  harmony  with  their  low  mental  condition;  it  is  rich  in  terms  for  concrete 
objects  or  expressions  of  sensuous  pleasure.  Abstract  terms  hardly  exist.  It  is  said  they 
cannot  recognise  accurate  portraits  of  themselves,  but  only  large  outlines  with  big  heads. 
They  have  little  sense  of  number,  few  of  them  being  able  to  count  beyond  three,  or  at  most 
five.  Anything  further  is  expressed  by  compounds.  They  are  not  altogether  without  poetry, 
but  their  verse  is  of  a  very  humble  order,  consisting  of  short,  disconnected  snatches  of  thought. 
They  have  plenty  of  legends  and  fables. 

It  would  not  be  true  to  say  that  the  Australians  have  no  kind  of  government  beyond 
what  may  be  exerted  at  home  by  parents.  Though  chiefs  are  neither  elected  nor  hereditary, 
yet  each  tribe  has  its  leader,  chief,  or  king.  It  gradually  recognises  the  greater  activity  and 
prowess  of  its  ablest  man,  who,  by  general  consent,  becomes  its  head.  He  rules  partly  by 
selecting  men  who  will  carry  out  his  wishes.  Generally  speaking,  as  we  have  already  said, 
women  are  despised;  but  there  is  one  exception.  In  West  Australia  an  old  woman  under- 
takes the  office  of  grandmother  to  the  tribe.  She  settles  quarrels,  separates  men  who  fight, 

and     summons     the 

tribe  to  war. 

Every  tribe  is 
divided  into  two, 
four,  or  even  six 
classes,  each  of  which 
has  a  class-name, 
taken  from  some 
animal  or  totem — as 
Dog,  Eat,  or  Emu. 
These  classes  are 
sometimes  called 
clans  or  totems,  and 
all  the  members  of 
each  are  considered 
to  be  blood  relations. 
So  a  man  of  the 
"Rat  clan"  must 
not  marry  a  girl  of 
that  clan,  but  must 
aspire  to  the  hand 

Photo  by  Mr.  R.  Phillip*}  [Z?rWaT~        °f>  ^>    an    "  EmU  " 

NATIVES   IN   OUTRIGGER,    RIVER    ENDEAVOUR,    NORTH   QUEENSLAND.  girl.  The 


AUSTRALIA 


59 


in  these  classes  is  in  the 
female  line  only,  so  that 
children  belong  to  their 
mothers'  clans.  Land,  how- 
ever, is  inherited  from  the 
fathers.  All  Australians  are 
very  strict  in  following  the 
unwritten  laws  of  public 
opinion,  and  the  rights  of 
property  are  strictly  upheld. 
In  Central  Australia  it  is 
different,  as  Messrs.  Spencer 
and  Gillen  have  shown  in  their 
most  important  recent  work 
on  the  Central  Tribes. 

The   natives   are   fond  of 
amusements,  such  as  dancing, 


From  Spencer  and  Gillen' s  "  Tribes  of  Central  Australia"  (by  permission). 
A   GROUP   OF  THE    ARUNTA  TRIBE. 

throwing  spears,  bathing  and  diving,  and  games  that 
tend  to  sharpen  the  eyesight,  or  to  make  the  players 
quick  at  concealing  themselves.  So  sharp  are  their 
eyes  that  they  can  recognise  the  footprints  of  most  of 
their  acquaintances  from  some  peculiarity  in  the  foot's 
shape,  or  the  way  in  Avhich  the  person  walks.  Boisterous 
games  are  not  so  popular.  The  dances,  like  those  of 
the  European  "Little  Folk"  or  fairies,  usually  take 
place  by  moonlight.  They  may  be  warlike,  licentious, 
or  in  imitation  of  the  chase  and  the  habits  of  animals. 
The  corroboree  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  spectacle  as 
well  as  of  a  dance.  It  generally  aims  at  reproducing 
in  a  dramatic  way  some  phase  in  native  life  that 
interests  both  the  performers  and  the  spectators.  In 
its  principal  features  it  is  similar  all  over  the  continent, 
but  the  details  vary  according  to  the  locality.  New 
features  are  frequently  invented.  It  is  the  Aboriginal 
drama,  and  the  "Management"  are  naturally  expected 


From 


Tribes  of  Central  Australia." 
UNCHICHERA   OF   IMANDA. 


6o 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


to  provide  novelties  from  time  to  time.  Men  are  the  chief  performers;  the  women  form 
the  orchestra,  and  make  the  music.  Sometimes  the  men  have  boughs  tied  to  their  ankles, 
feathers  in  their  hair,  the  down  of  birds  attached  to  their  skin  here  and  there,  with  drops 
of  blood,  and  other  decorations.  They  paint  themselves  with  coloured  clays,  the  patterns  being 
horrible  and  fantastic.  Thus  a  man  will  paint  himself  to  look  like  a  skeleton,  the  effect 
of  which  by  moonlight  is  weird,  the  lines  of  white  standing  out  sharply  against  his  black 
body.  The  "figures"  executed  often  represent  warlike  scenes.  Sometimes  the  actions  of 
the  emu  or  of  the  kangaroo  are  imitated.  The  ground  is  selected  for  the  purpose,  any- 
thing which  might  hurt  the  feet 
being  removed.  The  scenic  effect, 
with  the  fires  burning,  and  a  forest 
for  the  background,  is  very  striking. 
But  the  performance  entails  a  great 
deal  of  muscular  exertion.  The 
women  remain  seated  on  the  ground, 
and  sing  the  songs  that  properly  ac- 
company each  "figure."  An  old  man 
stands  near  them,  his  duty  being  to 
sing  the  first  few  words  of  each  song, 
and  to  beat  time  with  two  sticks 
which  he  holds  in  his  hands. 

Mr.  A.  W.  Howitt  has  written 
a  valuable  account  of  the  Australian 
medicine-men,  wizards,  or  doctors 
(Journal  of  the  Anthropological 
Institute,  XVI.).  Over  a  large  portion 
of  South-eastern  Australia  the  term 
"  blackfellow  doctor"  is  always  used 
for  those  who  profess  supernatural 
powers — not  merely  of  healing,  but 
others  that  are  purely  magical. 
There  are  also  "  rain-makers,"  seers, 
or  spirit-mediums,  and  bards  who 
employ  their  poetic  faculties  for  pur- 
poses of  enchantment.  The  wizards 
are  everywhere  credited  with  the 
power  of  conveying  themselves 
through  the  air,  or  of  being  conveyed 
by  the  ghosts  from  place  to  place,  or 
even  from  earth  to  the  sky.  Numer- 
ous accounts  were  given  to  Mr.  Howitt 
by  natives  of  the  "going  up"  of 
these  wizards.  The  reader  will  not  be  surprised  to  learn  that  the  upward  flights  always 
took  place  under  cover  of  darkness,  and  that  the  return  of  the  wizard  is  frequently  accom- 
plished by  means  of  a  tree,  down  which  he  was  heard  to  descend  and  finally  to  jump  on 
to  the  ground;  but  these  suspicious  circumstances  do  not  affect  the  faith  of  the  Aboriginal 
in  the  accomplishments  of  his  wizard,  who,  in  addition  to  the  power  of  travelling  to  and 
from  the  skies,  is  able  also  to  hurl  stones  invisibly  at  any  person  or  persons  whom  he 
may  wish  to  injure.  The  projectile  generally  employed  for  this  amiable  purpose  is  a  piece  of 
the  mineral  known  as  quartz  ("Bristol  diamond"  or  rock-crystal),  crystals  of  which  are  always 
carried  about  by  a  "blackfellow  doctor"  as  part  of  his  stock-in-trade.  All  bright  transparent 
stones  are  sacred  amulets  which  the  doctor  alone  may  touch  or  investigate.  It  is  believed 


Photo  by  Kerry  &  Co.]  [Sydney. 

A   MAN    OP   THE    WORKII    TRIBE,    GILBERT    RIVER. 


AUSTRALIA 


61 


that  the  sorcerers  have  a  stone  or  a  bone  in  their  stomach  from  which  they  can  secretly 
transfer  splinters  into  the  veins  of  those  upon  whom  they  exercise  their  arts,  and  the  cure 
of  diseases  with  them  generally  consists  in  the  extraction  of  these  stones.  Magic  wands  are 
made  of  acacia  sticks,  especially  the  knotted  stick  called  plongge:  if  a  sorcerer  touch  the 
breast  of  a  sleeping  man  with  one  of  these,  he  causes  him  to  fall  ill.  If  a  man  has  an 
enemy,  he  plots  for  his  death  or  downfall  with  the  sorcerer,  bringing  him  a  fragment  of 
anything  the  enemy  has  worn,  or  a  portion  of  his  hair  if  he  can  obtain  it,  or  even  a  morsel 
of  food  he  has  left,  by  means  of  which  the  sorcerer  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  work  any  ill 
upon  the  unfortunate  victim.  Many 
tribes  burn  what  food  is  left  after  a 
meal,  as  a  precaution  against  sorcery. 
The  Australian  cannot  reconcile  his 
mind  to  the  idea  that  death  is  a 
natural  event.  Every  death  not 
brought  about  by  open  violence  is 
considered  to  be  the  result  of  magical 
arts.  Some  wizard  must  have  been 
at  work  with  his  fatal  spells,  and  the 
friends  of  the  dead  man  endeavour 
in  their  own  peculiar  way  to  find  out 
who  is  the  murderer.  Some  put 
questions  to  the  bier  on  which  the 
corpse  is  laid,  calling  it  "  The  know- 
ing one."  At  the  funeral  a  relation 
who  does  not  make  sufficient  lamenta- 
tion is  liable  to  be  suspected !  Should 
the  man  suspected  belong  to  another 
tribe,  the  matter  becomes  a  casus 
belli:  a  few  spears  are  thrown,  and 
some  wounds  inflicted,  until  the  old 
men  declare  that  "  Honour  is  satis- 
fied." With  many  tribes,  it  is  believed 
that  a  man  can  be  bewitched  by  the 
use  of  his  name.  In  order  to  prevent 
such  a  misfortune,  a  lad,  as  soon  as 
he  becomes  a  man  (after  passing 
through  the  initiation  ceremonies), 
gives  up  his  name  and  is  described 
as  the  son  or  brother  of  a  woman; 
for  women,  being  supposed  to  be  less 
subject  to  witchcraft,  are  allowed  to 
keep  their  names. 

To  counteract  the  malevolent  arts  of  the  sorcerer,  charms  of  various  kinds  are  resorted  to. 
Mr.  Howitt  speaks  of  a  young  man  of  the  Murring  tribe  who  had  a  bagful  of  powerful 
charms,  among  which  was  the  cut-glass  stopper  of  a  bottle,  supposed  to  be  very  efficacious. 
When  asked  how  such  things  could  possibly  protect  him,  the  young  man,  who  had  for  his 
totem  the  kangaroo  (on  his  father's  side),  replied:  "If  I  were  going  along,  and  saw  an  old-man 
kangaroo  hopping  straight  towards  me  and  looking  at  me,  I  should  know  that  he  was  giving 
me  notice  that  enemies  were  about.  I  should  get  my  spear  ready,  and  I  should  hold  mjjoea 
bag  in  my  hand,  so  that  if  the  man  [i.e.  the  wizard]  were  to  chuck  something  at  me,  I 
should  be  safe." 

The  Kurnai  tribe  also  believe  in  kangaroo  warnings  ;    and   if  one  of  them   should   happen 


Photo  by  Kerry  &  Co.\  [Sydney. 

A    MAN    OF   THE    WORKII    TRIBE,    GILBERT    RIVER. 


62 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


to  dream  of  "old-men  kangaroos"  sitting  round  his  camp,  he  would  take  it  as  a  kindly 
warning  of  coming  danger.  One  may  be  sure  that  the  sorcerers  are  not  induced  to  exercise 
their  powers  without  some  material  reward.  They  all  demand  payment  in  kind.  Some  of 
their  patrons  give  presents  for  favours  received;  others  from  fear  of  possible  injuries.  The 
sorcerers  are  not  particular,  and  will  gladly  take  such  uncousidered  trifles  as  weapons,  rags, 
implements,  and  especially  game.  After  a  "  fair"  they  come  away  loaded  with  gifts.  It  is  difficult 
to  ascertain  the  manner  in  which  the  sorcerers  qualify  themselves  to  practise  their  profession 
and  to  impose  upon  their  fellow-blacks,  for  they  surround  themselves  with  profound  mystery — 
as  the  augurs  did  in  Home,  though  Macaulay  naively  wondered  how  two  of  them  could  meet 
without  laughing.  The  tribes  have  innumerable  tales  of  the  manner  in  which  the  powers  of 
magic  are  acquired.  Some,  as  the  Kurnai  tribe,  say  that  the  ghosts  of  ancestors  visit  a 
sleeping  man  and  communicate  to  him  the  secrets  of  sorcery,  or  take  him  away  with  them 
while  his  spirit  wanders  in  dreams  and  complete  his  education  in  the  distant  spirit-world. 
Other  tribes  believe  that  a  man  becomes  a  wizard  by  meeting  a  supernatural  being,  who  lives 
in  hollows  in  the  ground,  and  who  opens  the  man's  side  and  inserts  therein  quartz  crystals 
and  other  minerals  by  which  he  obtains  his  powers. 

Mr.  K.  H.  Mathews  has  described  (Journal  of  the  Anthropological  Institute]  the 
initiation  ceremonies  of  certain  Australian  tribes.  An  old  man,  who  appeared  to  be  a  wizard, 
told  him  a  curious  legend  connected  with  the  initiation  ceremonies  of  the  Wiradthuri  tribes 
of  New  South  Wales.  The  myth  was  as  follows: — A  long  time  ago  there  was  a  gigantic 
and  powerful  being,  something  between  a  blackfellow  and  a  spirit,  called  Dhuramoolan,  who 
was  one  of  Baiame's  people.  His  voice  was  awe-inspiring  and  resembled  the  rumbling  of 
distant  thunder.  At  a  certain  age  the  boys  of  the  tribes  were  handed  over  to  this  god,  in 
order  that  he  might  take  them  away  into  the  bush  and  instruct  them  in  all  the  laws, 
traditions,  and  customs  of  the  community,  to  qualify  them  to  sit  on  councils,  and  discharge 
all  the  duties  and  obligations  devolving  upon  them  as  tribesmen.  He  pretended  to  Baiame 
that  he  always  killed  the  boys,  cut  them  up  and  burned  them  to  ashes,  and  then  restored 
them  to  human  shape  again,  as  new  beings — doubtless  much  improved  by  the  process. 

But  not  all  the  boys 
came  back  to  the 
tribe,  for  at  every 
initiation  ceremony 
some  of  the  candi- 
dates died  in  the 
bush.  Dhuramoolan 
said  they  had  died 
from  natural  causes; 
but  Baiame,  becoming 
uneasy  at  the  loss  of 
so  many  of  his  young 
men,  and,  suspecting 
that  something  was 
wrong,  questioned 
their  companions.  At 
first  they  were  afraid 
to  tell;  but  on  being 
compelled  to  speak 
the  truth,  they  said 
that  the  missing  boys 
had  been  eaten  by 
Photo  by  Mr.  Phiiii^]  \_Bri*toi.  Dhuramoolan.  It  was 

NATIVES    OF   RIVER   ENDEAVOUR,    NORTH    QUEENSLAND.  not        trUC        that        the 


Photo  by  W.  Lindt,  Melbourne. 


A   NATIVE,    WITH   WIFE   AND   MOTHER. 


64-  THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 

survivors  had  been  burned  and  restored  to  life.  Baiame,  on  hearing  this,  became  very 
wroth  and  killed  this  great  being  Dhuramoolan.  But  Dhuramoolan  put  his  voice  into  all  the 
trees  of  the  forest,  telling  it  to  remain  in  them  for  ever.  He  also  made  a  "bull-roarer" 
(a  whip  used  to  frighten  away  women  at  the  ceremonies)  by  splitting  one  of  the  trees,  and 
the  tree  still  retained  the  voice.  Baiame  told  his  chief  men  that  in  future  they  must 
themselves  initiate  the  youths  of  the  tribes,  using  the  "  bull- roarers "  to  represent  the  voice 
of  Dhuramoolan.  The  women  were  not  told  of  the  death  of  Dhuramoolan  or  the  deceit 
which  he  had  practised,  and  they  therefore  continued  to  believe  that  he  took  the  boys,  burned 
them,  and  brought  them  back  to  life. 

It  is  quite  clear  that  the  object  of  the  initiatory  rites  is  to  teach  the  privileges,  duties, 
and  obligations  of  manhood,  to  harden  them  and  make  them  able  to  bear  pain.  Youths  are 
thus  enrolled  among  the  men,  and  removed  from  the  care  of  the  women.  They  are  no  longer 


.> 


Photo  by  Kerry 


[Sydney. 


RIVER    LANDSCAPE,    WITH    HUT. 


"tied  to  their  mother's  apron-strings,"  as  we  should  say.  The  ceremonies  create  a  gulf 
between  the  past .  life  of  the  boy  and  the  future  of  the  man  that  can  never  be  recrossed. 
They  also  strengthen  the  authority  of  the  old  men.  Finally,  the  opportunity  is  taken  of 
impressing  upon  the  mind  of  the  youth,  in  an  indelible  manner,  the  rules  of  conduct  which 
he  is  expected  to  obey.  In  addition  to  all  this  there  is  a  semi-religious  element  which  tends 
to  strengthen  very  greatly  the  emotional  effect  of  the  rite.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine 
anything  better  calculated  to  impress,  to  awe,  and  even  to  terrify  a  young  Australian  savage 
than  the  initiation  ceremonies  of  his  race. 

According  to  some  writers,  Australians  have  no  religion  beyond  the  dread  of  ghosts  and 
evil  spirits.  They  certainly  have  no  worship,  even  of  idols.  But  Ilatzel  and  others  maintain 
that  a  good  many  ideas  have  been  imported  from  Polynesia,  Melanesia,  Borneo,  and  other 
regions.  With  the  Kamilaroi  tribe  in  the  north-west  of  New  South  Wales,  Baiame  is 
regarded  as  the  maker  of  all  things;  his  name  signifies  "maker"  or  "cutter  out,"  and  he 
is  the  rewarder  of  men  according  to  their  conduct.  He  it  is  who  sees  and  knows  all,  being 
kept  well  informed  by  a  lower  deity  who  presides  at  the  initiation  ceremonies.  Another  deity, 
whose  name  is  Dhuramoolan,  acts  as  mediator.  The  latter  has  a  wife  called  the  Egg,  or  Life. 
She  has  charge  over  the  instruction  of  women.  The  spirit — that  which  speaks  and  thinks 


AUSTRALIA 


within  man — does  not  die  with  the  body,  but  ascends  to  Baianie,  or  it  may  wander  about 
on  the  earth,  or  enter  a  wild  animal  or  a  white  man.  A  native  once  quaintly  expressed 
his  belief  in  a  future  state  in  the  following  words:  "When  black-fella  tumble  down, 
he  jump  up  all  same  white-fella."  Numbers  of  white  men  have  been  recognised  by  the 
blacks  as  their  lost  relatives  returned  from  the  spirit-world,  and  have  accordingly  received 
native  names! 

The  late  Dr.  Bennett,  F.R.S.,  mentions  that  on  one  occasion,  when  a  European  was 
chasing  a  wild  animal,  the  black  who  accompanied  him  entreated  him  to  spare  it  and  to  take 
it  alive,  as  it  was  once  "him  brother"!  The  white  man,  disregarding  the  petition,  killed  the 
animal,  at  which  his  black  companion  was  greatly  grieved,  refusing  to  eat  any  of  it,  and 
muttering  all  the  while  about  "tumbling  down  him  brother"! 

According  to  Mr.  E.  Palmer,  a  certain  tribe  believe  that  there  is  a  place  among  the  stars 
whither  they  go  after  death  by  means  of  a  rope!  When  a  meteorite  is  seen,  they  say  it  is  a 


Photo  by  Henry  Kiny] 


A   GROUP    OF   NATIVE   AUSTRALIANS. 


66 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


falling  rope  discarded  by  a  spirit  which  has  succeeded  in  climbing  up  to  heaven;  but  if  the 
meteorite  bursts  with  a  loud  noise,  it  shows  that  the  rope  has  broken. 

The  Kev.  Charles  Greeuway,  speaking  of  the  Kamilaroi  tribe  of  New  South  Wales,  says 
they  have  a  legend  that  the  stars  forming  the  constellation  known  as  the  Pleiades  were 
young  women  of  extraordinary  beauty  who  once  lived  on  earth.  The  young  men,  becoming 
enamoured  of  their  charms,  pursued  them.  The  girls  prayed  for  deliverance,  and  Baiame  and 
his  mediator,  Dhuramoolan,  helped  them  to  climb  to  the  top  of  some  very  high  trees,  whence 
they  sprang  up  to  the  sky.  One  of  them,  not  being  so  beautiful  as  the  rest,  hides  behind  the 
other  six.  The  leader  of  the  young  men  who  pursued  them  no\v  appears  as  Orion,  with  a 
boomerang  in  his  belt.  The  natives  of  Encounter  Bay  say  that  the  souls  up  above,  in  the 
clouds  or  in  the  stars,  leave  their  habitations  in  the  evening,  and  go  about  their  business  as 
they  used  to  when  they  dwelt  on  earth.  The  Milky  Way  is  said  to  be  a  row  of  huts,  and 
natives  profess  to  see  therein  the  ash-heaps  and  columns  of  ascending  smoke,  as  from 

an  encampment. 
Meteorites,  according 
to  these  tribes,  are 
the  children  of  the 
stars.  The  outer  and 
inner  bands  of  colour 
in  the  rainbow  are 
male  and  female.  The 
moon  is  a  good  in- 
fluence, but  the  sun 
a  bad  one. 

It  is  always  diffi- 
cult to  generalise 
about  the  mental 
characteristics  of  any 
race  of  people,  and 
only  those  are  justi- 
fied in  the  attempt 
who  have  lived  among 
them  for  a  good  many 
years — even  then  they 
may  fall  into  serious 
errors,  so  reserved  are 
all  the  lower  races. 
But  we  cannot  be 

far  wrong  in  quoting  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Curr,  who  was  for  many  years  "  Protector  of 
the  Aborigines"  in  Victoria.  He  says:  "The  black,  especially  in  his  wild  state,  is 
quicker  in  the  action  of  his  mind,  more  observant,  and  more  self-reliant  than  the  English 
peasant,  but  less  steady,  persevering,  and  calculating.  In  our  aboriginal  schools  it  has 
been  found  that  the  pupil  masters  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  more  quickly  than  the 
English  child.  He  will  also  amuse  himself  with  reading  stories  as  long  as  he  is  under  the 
influence  of  the  whites.  At  this  point,  however,  he  stops.  Could  our  blacks  part  with  their 
knowledge  of  reading  and  writing,  I  am  persuaded  that  they  would  do  so  for  a  trifle.  .  .  . 
Socially,  the  black  is  polite,  gay,  fond  of  laughter,  and  has  much  bonhomie  in  his  composition. 
As  regards  courage,  he  is  inferior  to  the  white  man;  for,  though  his  nerve  is  superior,  his 
resolution  is  less.  His  tactics  in  war  are  such  that  he  will  never  undertake  an  enterprise  in 
which  the  death  of  even  one  of  the  party  is  inevitable,  or  nearly  so.  Hence,  no  blacks, 
however  numerous,  will  attempt  to  rush  a  hut  in  which  there  is  one  armed  man  on  guard. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  black  has  been  known,  in  a  place  far  removed  from  civilisation,  to 


Photo  by  Mr.  II.  Phillip]  [Bristol. 

WOMEN   IN   MOURNING — THEIR   BODIES    COATED    WITH    WHITE    CLAY. 


TASMANIA 


67 


Photo  by  J.   W.  Beattie] 


[Uobart. 


WILLIAM    LANNEY. 


resist,  single-handed,  the  advance  of  an  exploring  party 
with  the  greatest  intrepidity,  though  the  horses  must 
have  seemed  to  him  goblins  or  devils.  Touching  the 
moral  feelings  of  the  blacks,  Avriters  say  little  or 
nothing;  but  observation  has  convinced  me  that  they 
are  not  without  them  nevertheless,  though  they  are 
much  blunted  from  constant  repression,  and  that  they 
discriminate  between  right  and  wrong,  though  unable 
to  formulate  the  difference.  I  believe  their  horror  of 
consanguineous  marriages  proceeds  from  a  feeling  of 
this  sort  which  they  are  unable  to  analyse  or  explain. 
I  am  convinced  from  personal  observation  that,  after 
the  perpetration  of  infanticide  or  massacres,  though 
both  are  practised  without  disguise,  those  engaged  in 
them  are  subject  to  remorse  and  low  spirits  for  some 
time  afterwards."  Katzel  speaks  of  the  "soul-depressing 
misery"  that  hangs  over  these  people,  rendering  them 
unquestionably  far  inferior  to  that  beau-ideal  child  of 
Nature,  the  wild  North  American  Indian.  For  this  the 
climate  is  partly  responsible.  Eain,  which  is  so  essential 

for  filling  the  springs  and  maintaining  both  animal  and  vegetable  life,  comes  so  irregularly 
that  droughts  are  frequent.  Certain  steppe  districts  are  oppressively  hot,  and  the  sudden 
chill  that  follows  the  sunset  seems  to  cause  a  stupefying  effect.  Where  the  land  is  desert, 
the  inhabitants  are  few  in  number  and  of  a  miserable  appearance;  where  the  land  is  good, 
they  are  more  numerous,  better-looking,  and  more  active.  The  women  are  not  so  handsome 
as  the  men,  and  the  old  women  are  dreadfully  ugly;  this  is  partly  due  to  the  very 'laborious 
lives  they  lead,  but  also  to  the  very  poor  food  vouchsafed  to  them  by  their  lords  and  masters. 

Mr.  C.  S.  Wake,  who  has  contributed  papers  on  Australian  Aborigines  to  the  Journal  of 
the  Anthropological  Institute,  thus  sums  up  his  view  of  them:  "It  is  evident  that  these 
people  are,  as  compared  with  more  advanced  races,  in  the  condition  of  children.  Among  all 
the  tribes;  whether  the  more  hostile  ones  of  the  east,  or  those  who  in  the  west  appear  to 
give  evidence  of  a  milder  disposition,  there  is  the  same  .imperfect  development  of  moral  ideas. 
In  fact,  none  of  them  have  any  notion  of  what  we 

call     morality,    except     the     simple     one    of    right    and     /""""  """^ 

wrong  arising  out  of  questions  of  property.  With  this 
moral  imperfection,  however,  the  Australian  natives 
exhibit  a  degree  of  mental  activity  which,  at  first 
sight,  may  be  thought  inconsistent  with  the  childish 
position  here  assigned  to  them.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  this  activity  results  from  the  position  in  which  the 
Australian  is  placed.  Extremely  indolent  when  food  is 
plentiful,  when  it  is  scarce  the  greatest  exertions  can  be 
made  for  its  acquirement,  and  the  repeated  exercise  of 
the  mind  on  the  means  of  accomplishing  the  all-impor- 
tant end  of  obtaining  food  has  led  to  a  development  of 
the  lower  intellectual  faculties  somewhat  disproportionate 
to  the  moral  ideas  with  which  they  are  associated." 


TASMANIA. 

IT  is  to  Van  Diemen,  governor  of  the  Dutch  possessions 
in  the  East  Indies  in  the  year  1642,  who  sent  Tasman 


Photo  by  J.  W.  Beattie} 

WILLIAM   LANNEY. 


\_Hobart. 


68 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


in  command  of  two  successive  expeditions  from  Batavia,  that  we  owe  our  first  knowledge  of 
Australasia.  In  that  year  Tasman  came  in  sight  of  the  large  island,  which  he  called  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  after  his  patron.  He  guessed  that  the  island  was  inhabited,  but  saw  no 
natives.  The  first  meeting  of  the  Aborigines  with  Europeans  took  place  on  March  4,  1772. 
When  the  French  navigator  Marion  de  Fresne  arrived  at  the  spot  at  which  the  Dutchman 
had  touched,  the  blacks  came  down  to  the  French  boats  with  confidence;  but  unfortunately  there 
was  some  misunderstanding,  and  one  of  them  was  shot,  and  the  rest  fled.  The  first  Englishman 
who  approached  the  shores  of  Tasmania  was  Captain  Furueaux,  of  the  Resolution,  who  in 
March  1773,  having  been  accidentally  separated  from  the  ship  of  his  commander,  Captain 
Cook  (then  on  his  second  voyage  of  discovery),  coasted  along  the  south  and  east  shores.  He 
saw  none  of  the  people,  but  he  says  the  country  "appeared  to  be  thickly  inhabited,  as  there 
was  a  continual  fire  along  the  shore  as  we  sailed." 

On  January  26,  1777,  Captain  Cook,  then  on  his  third  voyage,  entered  Adventure  Bay. 
The  inhabitants  were  found  to  be  distinctly  below  the  English  standard  of  stature.  The 
average  height  of  twenty- three  men  gave  5  feet  3f  inches;  of  twenty-nine  women  the  average 
was  4  feet  11£  inches.  The  colour  of  the  skin  was  dark  brown,  or  chocolate  colour,  sometimes 
approaching  black.  The  hair  was  very  characteristic  of  their  race — which  is  believed  to  be 
Papuan  or  Melanesian,  though  modified  by  long  isolation.  Instead  of  being  straight  or  wavy, 
as  with  the  Australians,  it  was  finely  curled  or  frizzled;  when  short,  it  had  the  appearance 
commonly  called  "woolly,"  but  when  allowed  to  grow  long  it  went  into  small  ringlets,  which 
when  covered  with  grease  and  ochre  gave  the  appearance  of  a  sort  of  mop  of  red  strings 
hanging  over  the  head  and  neck.  The  men  had  good  beards  and  whiskers.  The  eyes  were 
small  but  bright,  and  sunk  beneath  heavy,  prominent  brows.  The  nostrils  were  large  and 
open;  the  nose  was  short  and  prominent,  the  upper  part  being  deeply  sunk  under  the 
projecting  ridge  connecting  the  eyebrows,  and  the  lower  part  very  wide.  The  brain-capacity 
was  small  compared  with  the  general  dimensions  of  the  skull  and  face;  the  projection  of  the 
lower  jaws  was  very  marked.  The  people  lived  "like  beasts  of  the  forests,  in  roving  parties, 
without  arts  of  any  kind,  sleeping  in  summer  like  dogs,  under  the  hollow  sides  of  trees,  or  in 
wattled  huts  made  with  the  lower  branches  of  evergreen  shrubs,  stuck  in  the  ground  at  small 
distances  from  each  other,  and  meeting  together  at  the  top."  Captain  Cook's  ship  surgeon, 
Mr.  Anderson,  tells  us  that  they  "had  little  of  that  fierce  or  wild  appearance  common  to  people 
in  their  situation,  but,  on  the  contrary,  seemed  mild  and  cheerful,  without  reserve  or  jealousy  of 

strangers.     But,"  he  adds,   "their  not  expressing 
that    surprise    which    one    might    have    expected 

^  from  their  seeing  men  so  much  unlike  themselves, 

j&  ^  k5^*»^H^  an<^  things  to  which,  we  were  well  assured,   they 

had  been  hitherto  utter  strangers,  their  in- 
difference for  our  presents,  and  their  general 
inattention,  were  sufficient  proofs  of  their  not 
possessing  any  acuteness  of  understanding." 
Cook's  intercourse  with  these  people  was  of  a 
perfectly  friendly  nature.  Their  treatment  by 
whites  in  the  present  century  is,  unfortunately, 
*/  a  very  different  story. 

In  the  year  1804  the  English  took  pos- 
/  session  of  the  island,  and  changed  its  name  to 
Tasmania.  They  colonised  it  from  New  South 
Wales.  At  Restdown,  afterwards  Risdon,  a 
settlement  was  formed  by  a  military  party  and 
convict  labourers.  It  was  here,  in  1804,  that 

Photo  by  J.  w.  Seattle]  [Hobar/.          the  first  serious  conflict  took  place,  and  through 

"  TRUGANINA,"  WILLIAM  LANNEY'S  WIFE,  a   foolish   misunderstanding.      A  party  of   several 


TASMANIA 


69 


hundred  blacks,  men,  women,  and 
children,  engaged  in  a  harmless 
kangaroo  chase,  were  suddenly 
seen  running  down  the  side  of 
a  hill  towards  the  young  colony. 
The  alarmed  settlers,  thinking 
that  they  were  about  to  be 
attacked,  fired  volleys  among  the 
unhappy  natives,  killing,  it  is 
said,  as  many  as  fifty  before  the 
fatal  mistake  was  found  out. 
Thus  began  that  terrible  "Black 
War"  which  makes  so  dark  a 
page  in  the  history  of  our  colonial 
expansion.  It  is  perhaps  only 
fair  to  say  that  the  English 
settlers  consisted  largely  of  con- 
victs of  the  most  hardened  and 
degraded  type,  who,  frequently 
escaping,  took  to  a  roving  and 
lawless  life  in  the  forests  as 
bushrangers,  or  on  the  islands 
in  the  straits  as  sealers.  From 
such  men  as  these,  the  very  dregs 
of  our  home  population,  utterly 
selfish  and  cruel,  the  natives 
mostly  received  impressions  of 
European  civilisation  and 
character,  which  led  to  reprisals 
upon  the  more  peaceful  settlers. 
Life  became  almost  everywhere 
so  insecure  as  to  cause  an  urgent  cry  for  Government  interference.  An  attempt  to  divide  the 
country  between  the  two  races  by  a  line  of  demarcation  failed.  More  severe  measures  followed; 
martial  law  was  proclaimed  against  all  the  blacks,  and  the  famous  operation  of  the  "Line"  was 
commenced.  The  intention  was  to  surround  all  the  natives  by  a  military  cordon  reaching  right 
across  the  island,  gradually  to  close  in  upon  them,  and  finally  to  drive  them  into  Tasman's 
Peninsula  on  the  east,  and  keep  them  there  by  means  of  a  strong  guard.  But  the  blacks 
were  too  cunning  to  be  caught  in  a  trap  like  that,  and,  knowing  the  ground  much  better  than 
their  pursuers,  easily  eluded  their  vigilance,  although  nearly  the  whole  of  the  white  population, 
civil  and  military,  were  employed  in  the  chase.  The  experiment  cost  nearly  £30,000,  and 
resulted  in  the  capture  of  one  wretched  black.  By  this  time  the  native  population,  robbed  of 
their  hunting-grounds,  and  acquiring  diseases  by  contact  with  the  whites,  were  reduced  to 
little  more  than  300  in  number.  After  methods  of  coercion,  including  the  offer  of  rewards 
for  individual  captures,  had  been  tried,  with  little  more  success,  one  white  man  accomplished 
by  kindness,  and  almost  single-handed,  what  all  the  forces  of  the  Government  had  failed  to 
do.  Mr.  Augustus  Robinson,  a  builder,  devoted  himself  to  the  cause  of  the  blacks  at  a  time 
when  the  whole  island  was  in  a  panic  from  the  attacks  of  a  few  natives.  Gathering  around  him 
at  Bruni  Island  as  many  of  them  as  he  could  induce  to  adopt  settled  habits,  he  taught  them 
the  rudiments  of  European  education,  at  the  same  time  learning  from  them  what  he  could 
of  their  language  and  ideas.  In  this  way  he  gradually  won  their  confidence,  and  the  report 
soon  spread  through  the  island  that  there  was  one  white  man  who  was  really  a  friend  of  the 
blacks.  With  a  few  native  and  English  friends  he  went  about,  unarmed,  among  the  people,  and 


atciiiy  by  Mr.   T.  Bock. 
A   NATIVE    OF   TASMANIA. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


iii  ct  water-colour  ilTdici 

A   YOUNG   MAN   OF   TASMANIA. 


persuaded  them  by  promises  of  good  treatment  to  sur- 
render their  freedom.  In  the  course  of  three  years 
they  all  came  in.  William  Lanney,  as  he  was  after- 
wards called,  was  one  of  the  last  party  brought  into 
Hobart  Town  in  1835.  He  was  the  "last  man"  of  this 
now  extinct  race;  and  we  reproduce  on  page  67  his 
photograph,  and  on  page  68  that  of  his  wife,  from 
lantern-slides  kindly  lent  by  the  Agent-General  for 
Xew  South  Wales. 

The  blacks  were  finally  settled  in  Flinders  Island, 
in  Bass  Strait,  their  number  then  scarcely  exceeding 
200.  Here  they  were  fed,  clothed,  and  educated  at 
Government  expense,  but  they  sadly  missed  the  old 
freedom  and  the  excitement  of  the  chase  or  of  war, 
and  partly  from  melancholy  and  partly  from  diseases 
they  rapidly  died  off,  until  in  1847  their  numbers  were 
reduced  to  forty-four.  William  Lanuey  died  in  1869. 
The  last  of  the  native  women,  Truganina,  who,  as  the 
faithful  companion  of  Eobinson's  conciliatory  missions, 
had  played  an  important  role,  and  on  one  occasion  had 
been  the  means  of  saving  his  life,  survived  until  1876. 

The  languages  of  the  Tasmanians  were  soft  and  musical,  and  quite  unlike  those  of  the 
Australians.  It  is  said  that  many  of  them  were  really  handsome  savages.  The  few  photographs 
still  extant  suggest  quite  the  reverse,  but  it  is  possible  that  the  ugliest  and  weirdest-looking 
natives  were  purposely  selected  as  subjects  for  the  camera.  In  Cook's  time,  besides  covering 
their  heads  with  grease  and  red  ochre,  the  Tasmanians  wore  bracelets,  armlets,  and  necklaces, 
also  girdles  of  kangaroo  sinews  or  vegetable  fibre,  to  which  shells,  bones,  or  teeth  were  often 
attached.  They  never  cultivated  the  ground,  and  had  no  domestic  animals,  not  even  dogs. 
Of  the  potter's  art  they  were  entirely  ignorant.  No  charges  of  cannibalism  have  been  brought 
home  to  them.  Although  it  seems  probable  that  they  were  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
producing  fire,  they  always  took  burning  torches  on  their  journeys.  Their  weapons  were  only 
two,  both  made  of  wood — a  simple  long  spear,  sharpened  at  one  end  and  hardened  by  the 
action  of  fire,  and  the  waddy,  a  short  stick,  which  could  be  used  either  as  a  club  or  missile. 
They  possessed  no  bows  and  arrows,  nor  did  they  use  the  shields,  boomerangs,  and  throwing- 
sticks  of  the  Australians.  Of  course  metal  of  any  kind  was  quite  unknown.  The  thin  bone 
of  a  kangaroo's  leg  served  for  needle,  awl,  or  pin;  their  domestic  utensils  were  stone  axes 
and  knives  of  the  very  rudest  construction;  in  fact,  Professor  Tylor  shows  in  a  valuable  paper 
read  before  the  Anthropological  Institute  that  these  people  may  be  fairly  taken  as  representing 
the  primitive  state  of  the  European  men  of  the  older  Stone  Age  (or  Palaeolithic  period), 
when  men  hunted  the  mammoth,  reindeer,  wild  horse,  and  the  primeval  bull.  The  Tasmanians 
had  no  seaworthy  canoes;  they  crossed  a  river  or  a  small  arm  of  the  sea  on  logs,  roughly 
constructed  rafts,  or  bark  canoes. 

They  were  divided  into  numerous  small  tribes,  each  speaking  a  different  dialect,  sometimes 
incomprehensible  to  each  other;  and  as  it  not  unfrequently  happens  among  rival  communities 
boasting  a  far  higher  condition  of  civilisation,  these  tribes  were  often  at  war  with  one  another; 
but  being  by  no  means  of  a  savage  or  bloodthirsty  disposition,  and  the  weapons,  as  indicated 
above,  not  being  of  a  very  destructive  nature,  their  battles  were  rarely  attended  with  many 
casualties.  The  sanguinary  side  of  their  disposition  was  unfortunately  developed  in  the 
life-and-death  struggle  with  the  intruding  Europeans.  As  with  most  people  in  a  primitive 
condition  of  society,  the  chief  occupation  of  the  men  was  hunting,  while  the  women  attended 
to  the  concerns  of  the  household  (if  such  a  term  can  be  fitly  employed  for  the  domestic 
economy),  taking  care  of  the  children,  searching  for  roots,  shell-fish  or  eggs,  cooking,  making 


TASMANIA 


71 


nets,  etc.  Dancing  was  a  favourite  amusement;  and  notwithstanding  the  excessively  low  grade 
of  their  culture,  scattered  notices  of  their  primitive  mode  of  existence  show  that  life  was  to 
them  not  altogether  without  its  amenities,  and  even  enjoyments.  As  far  as  is  known,  they 
had  no  system  of  caste,  and  apparently  no  regular  chiefs,  either  hereditary  or  elective;  but  a 
man  of  superior  power  or  intelligence  would  sometimes  acquire  a  temporary  leadership  of  a 
family  or  tribe.  Monogamy  is  said  to  have  been  the  usual  rule  in  their  marriages,  but  very 
little  is  really  known  about  their  social  customs;  even  the  accounts  in  Bonwick's  work  are 
greatly  eked  out  with  relations  of  the  manners  of  the  Australians  and  other  kindred  races,  in 
such  a  way  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  what  is  really  authentic  with  regard  to  the 
people  of  whom  he  is  especially  treating. 

The  geographical  position  of  these  people — completely  out  of  all  the  ordinary  tracks  of 
commerce  and  civilisation — isolated  them  from  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  Neither  they 
nor  the  almost  equally  barbarous  natives  of  Australia  possessed  boats  by  which  the  straits 
between  Tasmania  and  the  neighbouring  mainland  could  be  crossed;  and  there  are  no  proofs 
that  they  had  ever  been  visited  by  or  received  any  extraneous  culture  from  inhabitants  of 
any  of  the  Pacific  islands.  It  is  this  long  isolation  Avhich  gives  so  much  interest  to  the  study 
of  the  customs,  morals,  and  physical  condition  of  the  Tasmanians,  as  we  have  to  do  with  a 
people  unaffected  by  all  the  complicated  ethnological  problems  arising  from  the  mingled 
influence  of  diverse  and  various  races  found  among  the  nations  of  most  other  parts  of  the 
world.  Unfortunately  the  opportunity  for  a  complete  investigation  of  this  interesting  subject 
has  been  allowed  to  pass  away  under  our  very  eyes,  as  it  were.  The  language  of  the  natives 
is  irretrievably  lost,  only  imperfect  indications  of  its  structure  and  a  small  proportion  of  its 
words  having  been  preserved.  In  the  absence  of  sibilants,  and  some  other  features,  their 


[Hobart. 


A   GROUP   OF   TASMANIANS. 


72 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Photo  by  J.   ir. 

A    GROUP    OF    TASMANIANS. 


dialects   resembled    the    Australian,    but    were    of 
a   ruder,  of  less-developed  structure,  and  so  imperfect 
•;   that,    according     to     Joseph.    Milligau,    our    best 
1  authority  on  the  subject,  they  observed  no  settled 
f   order  or  arrangement  of  words  in  the  construction 
of    their    sentences,    but    conveyed    in    a    supple- 
\   mentary    fashion    by    tone,    manner,   and    gesture 
I   those  modifications  of  meaning  which  we  express 
|   by    mood,    tense,    number,    etc.      Abstract    terms 
were  rare,   and  for  every  variety  of  gum-tree  or 
\   wattle-tree   there   was   a   name,  but   no  word  for 
3    "tree"  in  general,  or  for  qualities,  such  as  hard, 
\   soft,   warm,  cold,  long,  short,  round,  etc.     Any- 
"   thing   hard  was  "like   a  stone,"  anything   round 
''like  the  moon,"  and  so.  on,  "usually  suiting  the 
action  to  the  word,  and  confirming  by  some  sign 
the  meaning  to  be  understood."     The  records  of 

their    arts,    customs,   and    beliefs,   before  they  were   contaminated    by   European  influence,    are 

far  from  satisfactory;    and   even  of    their    physical    structure  far  less  evidence   than   could  be 

desired  is  at  present  attainable. 

Anthropologists  believe  that  the  island-continent  of  Australia  was  at  some  distant  period 

inhabited    by  a    woolly-haired    race    of    Papuans    or 

Melanesiaus,     from     whom     the     Tasmanians     were 

derived,  and  that,  later  on,  these  people  were  driven 

out  of  their  continent   by   the  present    race  of  so- 
called  Aborigines,  who  are  believed  to  be  Caucasian, 

like   ourselves.      By  this  explanation  we  escape  the 

difficulty  of    supposing    that  the    Tasmanians   could 

have    come    all    the    way  from    Melanesia,   or    from 

New    Guinea.      According    to    Professor    Tylor,   the 

religion   of   these   people  was   a   rude  "Animism"; 

they  thought   that   a   man's   shadow  was  his  ghost. 

The  echo  of    his   voice  when    he    spoke    against    a 

cliff  was   his    shadow  talking.      They  believed   in  a 

future  state,  of  which  the  abode  was   some   distant 

region    of    the    earth;     and     as     in    the    case    of 

Australians,   they  were  wont   to    recognise    in  their 

white  visitors  the  souls  of  dead  Tasmanians  returned 

from  the  land  of  spirits. 

"In  religion"  (according  to  the  late  Dr.  Brown) 

"  they    believed    in    a    spirit    who    could,    especially 

during  the  night,  hurt  or  annoy  them,  and  beyond 

this  their  mythology  was  limited.     They  also  believed 

in    a    world    beyond    the     grave,    where    they    were 

better  fed  and   led  a  somewhat  easier  life  than  in 

the   present    one — where    stockmen  who    set  spring- 
guns  for  them  were   unknown,   and   where    neither 

mutton  impregnated   with  strychnine  nor  flour  with 

arsenic  was   put   in    their  way  when    they   were    hungry.      They  had   great   confidence  in  the 

power  of  amulets.       The  most  valued  of  these  was  a  bone  from  either  the  skull  or  the  arm  of 

their  deceased  relatives,  to  be  sewn  up  in  a  piece  of  skin;    this  was  sovereign  against  sickness 

or  premature  death." 


A    WOMAN    OF    CELERES. 


CHAPTER  IY. 
CELEBES,   BORNEO,   JAVA,    SUMATRA,    PHILIPPINES,   MALAY   PENINSULA. 


THE   MALAYS. 

WE  pass  from  the  Australian  Continent  to  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  which  extends  westward 
and  north-westward  from  New  Guinea,  and  contains  among  its  more  important  islands  Timor 
Laut,  the  Timor  'Group,  the  Moluccas,  Celebes,  Mores,  Sumba,  Sumbawa,  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
and  the  Philippines.  We  shall  include  in  this  chapter  a  brief  account  of  the  very  primitive 
Negritos  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  although  geographically  they  belong  to  the  continent  of  Asia. 
The  Negritos  are  also  found  in  the  Philippines;  but  the  chief  race  of  this  vast  archipelago  is 
the  Malay. 

The  Malay  race,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  whole  region  of  Malaysia,  is  a  branch  of  the 
great  Mongolian  division  of  mankind.  Its  people  are  slim  and  of  medium  stature,  some  three 
or  four  inches  below  the  average  European 
height.  The  complexion  is  light  brown 
(with  variations).  The  face  is  somewhat 
square,  with  high  and  prominent  cheek- 
bones. The  eyes  are  black  (rarely  oblique, 
as  in  China  and  Japan);  the  mouth  is 
rather  large,  with  somewhat  thick  but 
well-cut  lips,  and  the  chin  is  round;  the 
nose  is  short,  and  quite  unlike  that  of 
either  the  European  or  the  Negro.  The 
hair  is  black.  The  beard,  when  allowed  to 
grow,  is  scanty,  and  at  first  sight  the  men 
and  women  appear  very  much  alike  to 
European  eyes. 

Three  distinct  social  groups  of  Malays 
are  recognised:  (1)  the  "Men  of  the 
Soil,"  or  Orang  Benua  (known  also  as 
"  Highlanders  "  and  "  Wild  Men  ") ;  (2)  the 
"Men  of  the  Sea"  (Orang  Laut},  a 
semi-civilised  floating  population;  (3)  the 
"Malay  Men"  (Orang  Malay u),  who  are 
the  civilised  Malays  possessing  a  certain 
culture  and  a  religion.  The  "  Wild  Men  " 
are  the  raw  material,  or  aboriginal  element, 
hitherto  almost  entirely  unaffected  by 
foreign  influence,  living  chiefly  by  the 
chase,  and  with  very  little,  if  any,  social 
organisation.  These  principally  exist  in 
the  almost  inaccessible  wooded  uplands  of 
Malacca  and  Sumatra,  and  are  more  or  less 
intimately  associated  with  the  still  older 

73 


SAKAKAXG    DYAS. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


DYA    WOMEN'    AXD    CHILDREN. 


race  of  Negritos.  The  Bajans,  or  "  Sea  Gypsies,"  may  be  classed  with  the  second  group. 
They  were  known  to  the  Portuguese  when  they  first  reached  Malaysia.  De  Barros  then  described 
them  as  "a  vile  people,  dwelling  more  on  the  sea  than  on  the  land,"  and  "living  by  fishing 
and  robbing."  This  description  may  still  be  not  unfitly  applied  to  them. 

The  Malays  proper,  or  "Malay  Men,"  constitute  that  section  of  the  race  which,  under  the 
influence  first  of  the  Hindus,  who  settled  in  Sumatra  as  far  back  as  the  fourth  century  of  our 
era,  and  then  of  the  Arabs,  has  developed  a  national  life  and  culture,  and  has  founded  more 
or  less  powerful  political  states  in  various  parts  of  the  archipelago.  The  chief  divisions  of  all 
the  civilised  communities  are  as  follows: — 

Malays  Proper  live  in  Menangkabo,  Palembang,  and  Lampong  in  Sumatra;  petty  states 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula;  Borneo,  Tidor  Ternate. 

Sumatran  Group :   Achenese,  Eejangs,  Passomahs. 

Javanese  Group :   Javanese  proper,  Sundanese,  Madurese,  Balinese. 

Celebes  Group:    Bugis,  Makassars,  and  others. 

Philippine  .Group :  Tagalas,  Bisayans,  Bicol-Sulus,  etc. 

Outlying  Groups:   Hovas  of  Madagascar,  Formosan  Islanders. 

Perhaps  the  principal  characteristic  of  the  Malay  is  his  easy-going  and  indolent  nature. 
He  is  generally  gentle,  quiet,  extremely  civil  in  manner,  not  wont  to  rebel  against  authority: 
he  never  openly  expresses  surprise  or  fear,  and  in  speech  is  invariably  slow  and  deliberate. 
Malays  seldom  offend  one  another,  and  never  indulge  in  rough  behaviour  or  anything  which 
might  be  called  "horseplay."  In  all  matters  of  etiquette  they  are  very  particular,  and  in  this 
respect  the  upper  classes  behave  with  the  dignity  of  European  gentlemen,  although  they  have 
a  natural  tendency  to  suspicion,  which  causes  their  manners  to  lack  the  frankness  which  is 
typical  of  the  educated  Englishman.  In  contrast  with  this  there  is  a  dark  side  to  the  Malay 
character,  which  often  manifests  itself  in  the  most  pitiless  cruelty  and  contempt  of  human 
life.  Hence  murder  and  robbery  with  violence  are  of  somewhat  frequent  occurrence.  Many 
travellers  describe  the  Malays  as  gentle  and  peaceable,  while  others  dwell  on  their  brutality 
and  ferocity,  and  it  is  only  by  bearing  in  mind  the  two  opposite  sides  of  the  Malay  character 
that  we  can  reconcile  descriptions  so  apparently  contradictory.  The  Malays  dislike  manual 


MALAYS 


75 


labour,  and  consider  themselves  degraded  by  it;  but  under  favourable  conditions,  especially  if 
well  paid,  they  can  get  through  no  small  amount  of  work.  Gambling  is  one  of  their  worst 
vices,  and  they  bet  heavily  over  cock-fighting,  which  is  their  chief  form  of  amusement.  They 
are  also  very  much  addicted  to  opium-smoking.  Among  their  virtues  must  be  reckoned 
frugality  and  contentment. 

•  The  barbarous  practice  of  head-hunting  is  a  time-honoured  custom  of  all  the  Malays. 
Martin  de  Eada  speaks  of  its  existence  as  early  as  the  year  1577;  and  even  at  the  present 
day,  in  spite  of  vigorous  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  colonial  authorities,  the  custom  of 
taking  the  heads  of  enemies  as  trophies  has  by  no  means  died  out.  All  Malays  appear  to 
worship  skulls,  or  to  regard  them  as  sacred.  Hence  they  naturally  regard  a  human  skull  as 
the  most  suitable  sacrifice  that  they  can  offer  to  appease  the  spirits  of  their  ancestors.  Chris- 
tianity and  Islamism  have  both  done  something  to  check  the  practice.  In  North  Borneo  skulls 
now  lie  about  like  old  lumber,  instead  of  being  carefully  kept  as  of  old.  Among  the  Igorottes, 
according  to  Hans  Meyer,  the  only  surviving  reminiscence  of  the  practice  is  the  dance, 
accompanied  by  derisive  songs,  round  a  bare  pole,  on  which  formerly  the  skull  was  stuck. 
Among  the  Ilongotes,  on  the  other  hand,  a  young  man  cannot  marry  until  he  has  brought 
his  bride-elect  a  certain  number  of  heads — those  of  Christians  being  preferred.  The  Dya 
head-hunter  keeps  his  skulls  in  a  beautifully  carved  box.  When  a  chief  wishes  to  ornament 
his  house,  he  demands  human  skulls.  Heads  must  be  placed  under  the  posts  of  a  house  at 
its  foundation.  None  but  the  successful  head-hunter  can  claim  to  be  tattooed.  By  a  kind  of 
unwritten  law  tribal  quarrels  are  usually  settled  by  the  cutting  off  of  heads.  The  practice 


SAREBAS    DYA    WOMEN. 


SIB  HUGH  Low  COLLECTION. 


76 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


proceeded  originally  from  super- 
stitious motives;  but  ultimately  it 
became  a  fashion,  and  every  one  de- 
sired to  have  skulls,  just  as  in 
England  people  like  to  collect  old 
china  or  ancient  armour  to  decorate 
the  ancestral  hall.  Owing  to  the 
innate  idleness  of  the  Malays,  blood- 
feuds  gradually  ceased,  and  head- 
hunting became  a  less  dangerous,  and 
consequently  more  popular,  amuse- 
ment. A  lazy  Dya  would  catch  a 
man  asleep  in  order  to  take  his  head 
off,  or  he  would  prowl  about  the 
paddy-fields,  awaiting  his  opportunity 
to  fall  upon  one  or  two  helpless 
women  and  children.  The  people  are 
too  lazy  to  avenge  the  death  even 
of  a  relation  killed  in  this  way,  and 
Michaelsen  says:  "Only  once  has 
it  occurred  that  a  Dya  of  Serajen, 
whose  daughter  had  been  murdered 
by  ahead-hunter  of  Katingen,  followed 
the  murderer,  and  cut  his  head  off 
actually  at  the  festival  which  was 
being  held  in  his  honour.  The  deed 
caused  such  terror  that  the  man  who 
dared  to  do  such  a  thing  in  vengeance 
for  his  child  was  allowed  to  depart 
unhindered  with  the  decapitated 
head." 

Dyas  conduct  their  head-hunting 
operations  in  a  very  systematic  way. 
They  begin  by  a  religious  consecra- 
tion. They  construct  a  hut  on  four 

posts;  the  entrance  is  barred  with  coils  of  rattan,  hung  with  red  flowers,  palm  leaves,  and 
many  little  wooden  counterfeit  swords,  spears,  shields,  etc.  Inside  the  place  is  decorated 
with  spears,  blow-guns,  freshly  poisoned  arrows,  and  other  arms.  The  company  stay  here  for 
several  days  before  setting  out,  and  consult  the  omens.  No  one  not  belonging  to  their 
number  is  allowed  to  approach  the  hut,  and  any  man  attempting  to  do  so  renders  himself 
liable  to  a  heavy  fine,  or  even  to  death. 

The  position  of  women  among  the  Malays  is  not  very  low,  and  those  who  are  Moslems 
treat  their  women-folk  better  than  the  heathen  Malays  do.  Speaking  of  the  island  of  Timor 
Laut,  Riedl  says:  "The  husband  never  beats  the  wife;  it  is  quite  the  other  way."  In  all 
respects  the  woman  is  highly  valued,  and  a  man  must  pay  a  heavy  price  for  a  wife. 

The  Malays  of  to-day  are  fond  of  submitting  appeals  to  "  the  judgment  of  God "  by 
means  of  "ordeals."  The  commoner  forms  of  ordeal -are  by  ducking,  pulling  a  ring  out  of 
boiling  oil,  and  licking  red-hot  iron.  Another  form  of  ordeal  is  the  "  trial  by  candle,"  which 
the  Tagals  borrowed  from  certain  Christians.  In  this  case  a  candle,  having  been  duly  con- 
secrated, is  solemnly  lighted,  and  watched  closely  by  the  suspected  persons,  for  if  it  should 
bend  towards  one  of  them  he  is  adjudged  the  guilty  party.  When  two  Igorottes  quarrel, 
the  backs  of  their  heads  are  scratched  with  sharp  splinters  of  bamboo,  and  the  one  who  loses 


A    KANOWIT    CHIEF. 


CELEBES  — BORNEO 


77 


most  blood  loses  also  his  case.      Sometimes  judgment  is  sought  by  testing  the  size  of  the  gall 
of  a  hen  which  has  been  roasted  to  death. 

The  proverbs  of  a  nation  are  always  interesting,  and  those  of  the  Malays  exhibit  a  good 
deal  of  mother- wit.  We  say,  ''Out  of  the  frying-pan  into  the  fire";  the  Malay  equivalent  is, 
'"Escaping  the  jaws  of  the  alligator  to  fall  into  the  fangs  of  the  tiger."  Having  no  pots  and 
kettles,  they  say,  "The  net  calls  the  basket  a  coarse  piece  of  work."  Other  examples  are  as 
follows:  "What  use  is  it  for  the  peacock  to  swagger  in  the  jungle?"  "Can  the  ground  turn 
itself  into  iron?"  "The  turtle  lays  a  thousand  eggs  and  no  one  knows;  a  hen  lays  one  and 
tells  all  the  world."  "Even  the  fish  which  lives  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  comes  to  the  net 
at  last."  A  coward  is  called  "a  duck  with  spurs." 


CELEBES. 

THE  Island  of  Celebes  is  the  home  of  many  distinct  and  separate  tribes  of  the  Malay  race, 
all  in  different  stages  of  civilisation.  \Ve  may  conveniently  divide  them  into  two  groups: 
the  Mohammedans,  who  are  to  some  extent  civilised,  and  the  Pagans,  who  are  little  better 
than  savages,  wearing  bark-cloth  garments  and  unable  to  weave  or  to  work  in  metal.  The 
Mohammedans,  on  the  other  hand,  can 
read  and  write,  have  fixed  forms  of 
government,  and  have  made  no  small 
progress  both  in  agriculture  and  in  arts. 
Among  these  people  the  more  important 
are  the  Bugis,  the  Mandars,  and  the 
Makassars.  The  Bugis  are  good  traders 
and  settlers,  and  navigate  their  ships,  of 
fifty  or  sixty  tons'  burden,  from  the 
farthest  point  of  Sumatra  to  Xew  Guinea. 
The  Mandars  by  the  Strait  of  Makassar 
have  a  language  of  their  own  and  are 
good  fishermen.  The  Mnkassars  also  have 
a  distinct  language.  Some  of  the  re- 
maining tribes  are  head-hunters  and 
cannibals,  and  either  are  or  were  very 
similar  to  the  Dyas  of  Borneo.  In  the 
Moluccas  we  find  Malays,  Papuans,  and 
Indonesians  (or  pro-Malays)  all  very  much 
mixed  up. 

BORNEO . 

THE  Island  of  Borneo  is  divided  for 
political  purposes  into  four  territories: 
North  British  Borneo  (or  Sabn)  in  the 
north,  and  the  Raj  of  Sarawak  in  the 
north-west;  between  these  lies  the  small 
state  of  the  Sultan  of  Brunei;  all  the 
rest  of  the  island  is  Dutch.  It  is  not 
thickly  inhabited,  the  population  being 
roughly  estimated  at  2,000,000. 
Numerous  ruins  of  Hindu  temples, 
scattered  over  this  great  island,  prove 
that  Indonesians  (or  pre-Malays)  once 
came  here — perhaps  from  Java.  Then 


Plioto  by  Xtgretli  &  Zambru] 

A    MAN    OF   JAVA. 


\_Londo 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


came  the  Malays  themselves,  driving  inland  the  older  population.  The  peoples  inhabiting 
the  Raj  of  Sarawak  are  Land  Dyas,  Sea  Dyas,  Milanans,  Kayans,  Muruts,  Ukits,  Bisayans, 
Malays,  and  Chinese.  The  Land  Dyas,  of  whom  there  are  about  forty  branches,  are  a  small 
race,  of  slender  build,  with  straight  black  hair,  and  of  the  same  complexion  as  Malays. 
Although  all  the  wild  people  of  Borneo  are  by  Europeans  called  Dyas,  the  name  belongs 
properly  to  one  particular  class  inhabiting  parts  of  the  north-west  coast  and  the  mountains 
of  the  interior.  As  a  generic  term  the  word  appears  to  mean  "man."  Dyas  of  pure  blood 
are  only  to  be  found  in  the  interior,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  for  centuries  they  have  been 
marrying  with  Chinese  immigrants.  Their  language  differs  entirely  from  that  of  either  the 
Malays  or  the  Sea  Dyas,  and  is  subject  to  so  much  variation  that  tribes  in  Upper  Sarawak 
often  find  a  difficulty  in  making  themselves  understood  in  the  Upper  Sadong.  The  Sea  Dyas 
are  of  stouter  build  than  the  Land  Dyas,  with  well-made  limbs,  a  subdued  and  calm  but 


Photo  by  Negretti  &  Zantbru\ 


JAVA    WOMEN. 


resolute  air,  an  imposing  carriage,  walking  with  a  light,  graceful  step.  The  men  are  fine 
healthy  fellows;  the  women  are  often  ill  favoured  in  personal  appearance.  The  colour  of  the 
skin  is  dark  brown,  with  a  strong  tinge  of  yellow.  The  teeth  are  stained  black  and  filed  to 
a  point.  Love  of  finery  is  inherent  in  the  young  of  both,  sexes,  but  the  old  people  often  dress 
very  shabbily.  The  male  attire  consists  of  a  waist-cloth,  a  head-dress,  and  a  mat  to  sit  upon; 
but  for  full  dress  a  jacket  and  a  shawl  are  considered  necessary.  The  women  usually  wear 
a  short  petticoat  at  home  and  a  jacket  out  of  doors.  By  way  of  ornament  they  wear 
earrings,  finger-rings,  necklaces,  bracelets,  ankle-rings,  and  a  curious  corsetj  which  in  some 
cases  is  simply  a  series  of  cane  hoops  on  which  a  great  number  of  brass  rings  have  been 
threaded.  A  few  of  the  hoops  are  made  larger  than  the  rest,  so  as  to  hang  loose  on  the  hips. 
The  upper  hoops  are  pinned  together  with  brass  wire.  These  brass  corsets  are  rarely  taken  off. 
A  writer  in  The  Field  newspaper,  December  6,  1884,  describing  the  operation  of  removal, 
says:  "The  girl  I  saw  had  to  hang  by  her  hands  to  a  bar  of  wood,  whilst  a  friend  slipped 


BORNEO 


79 


Photo  by  AV;//'(«i  <t  Zanil 


[London. 


A   JAVA   MAN. 


her  brass  cuirass  inch  by  inch  upwards 
over  her  head."  In  some  cases  the  rings 
are  of  solid  brass.  On  one  occasion  a 
girl  was  being  conveyed  by  water  to  her 
wedding  feast  when  the  boat  upset,  with 
the  result  that  she  was  drowned  by  the 
great  weight  of  metal  she  carried. 

Dya  houses  are  generally  very  large, 
many  families  residing  together.  Every 
village  has  a  common  house  where  the 
young  unmarried  men  sleep  and  travellers 
are  lodged.  The  Dyas  cultivate  -many 
kinds  of  fruit  and  vegetables,  and  they 
are  fond  of  tobacco  and  cane  sugar.  In 
hunting  they  use  the  sunipitan,  or  blow- 
pipe, a  wooden  tube  about  8  feet  long, 
through  which  small  poisoned  arrows  are 
blown. 

An  interesting  description  of  a 
curious  method  of  courtship,  which  is 
found  both  among  the  Laud  and  Sea 
Dyas,  is  given  by  Sir  S.  St.  John,  who 
says :  "  Besides  the  ordinary*  attention 
which  a  young  man  is  able  to  pay  to 
the  girl  he  desires  to  make  his  wife— as 


helping  her  in  her  farm  work,  and  in 
carrying  home  her  load  of  vegetables  or 
wood,  as  well  as  in  making  her  little 
presents,  as  a  ring,  or  some  brass  chain- 
work  with  which  the  women  adorn  their 
waists,  or  even  a  petticoat— there  is  a  very 
peculiar  testimony  of  regard  which  is 
worthy  of  note.  About  nine  or  ten  at 
night,  when  the  family  is  supposed  to  be 
fast  asleep  within  the  mosquito  curtains 
in  the  private  apartment,  the  lover  quietly 
slips  back  the  bolt  by  which  the  door 
is  fastened  and  enters  the  room  on 
tip-toe.  He  goes  to  the  curtains  of  his 
beloved,  gently  awakes  her,  and  she 
on  hearing  who  it  is  rises  at  once, 
and  they  sit  conversing  together,  and 
making  arrangements  for  the  future  in 
the  dark  over  a  plentiful  supply  of  sirrah- 
leaf  and  betel-nut,  which  it  is  the 
gentleman's  duty  to  provide.  If  when 
awoke  the  young  lady  rises  and  accepts 
the  prepared  betel-nut,  happy  is  the  lover, 
for  his  suit  is  in  a  fair  way  to  prosper; 
but  if,  on  the  other  hand,  she  rises  and 


Photo  by  Negretti  <t  Zambra] 

A  JAVA  WOMAN. 


[London. 


8o 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


says,  'Be  good  enough  to  blow  up  the  fire,  or  to  light  the  lamp'  (a  bamboo  filled  with  resin), 
then  his  hopes  are  at  an  end,  as  that  is  the  usual  form  of  dismissal.  Of  course,  if  this  kind 
of  nocturnal  visit  is  frequently  repeated,  the  parents  do  not  fail  to  discover  it,  although  it  is 
a  point  of  honour  among  them  to  take  no  notice  of  their  visitor,  and  if  they  approve  of  him 
matters  take  their  course;  but  if  not,  they  use  their  influence  with  their  daughter  to  ensure 
the  utterance  of  the  fatal  '  Please  blow  up  the  fire.'  It  is  said  on  good  authority  that  these 
nocturnal  visits  but  seldom  result  in  immorality." 

The  custom  of  burning  the  dead  is  confined  to  the  Land  Dyas.  In  Western  Sarawak 
the  custom  is  universal;  in  the  districts  near  the  Samarahan,  the  dead  may  be  either  burned 
or  buried;  and  in  the  Sadoug  they  are  always  buried.  Among  the  Silakan,  the  Lara,  and 
the  true  Lundu  tribes  the  bodies  of  the  elders  and  the  rich  people  are  burned,  while  the 
others  are  buried. 

The  Sea  Dyas  dispose  of  their  dead  by  burial.  When  any  one  dies,  the  medicine-man 
who  has  been  in  attendance  during  the  illness  is  expected  also  to  superintend  the  interment, 
and  for  this  service  he  is  paid  an  extra  fee.  All  able-bodied  men  in  the  village  turn  out  to 
assist  the  bereaved  family,  for  it  is  expedient  to  have  the  funeral  on  the  day  of  death.  Xo 
sooner  has  the  patient  breathed  his  last  than  female  relatives  utter  loud  laments;  they  wash 

the  corpse,  and  dress  it  in  the 
finest  garments  of  the  deceased, 
and  frequently  add  all  his 
weapons.  It  is  then  borne  along 
to  the  great  common  hall,  where 
friends  come  to  mourn.  In 
some  villages  a  hireling  leads 
the  lament,  which  is  continued 
until  the  corpse  leaves  the  hall 
for  the  burial-ground.  Before 
this,  however,  the  body  is  rolled 
up  in  cloths  and  fine  mats,  kept 
together  by  pieces  of  bamboo 
tied  in  with  rattans.  The  Sea 
Dyas  regard  their  burying- 
grounds  with  superstitious  terror 
as  the  abode  of  spirits,  hurrying 
away  as  soon  as  possible  for  fear 
of  meeting  ghosts.  Consequently 
the  graves  are  uncared  for. 
Many  years  ago  some  at  least  of 
the  Sea  Dyas*  used  to  sacrifice 
prisoners  on  the  graves  of  chiefs. 
We  cannot  conclude  this 
brief  description  of  the  people 
of  Borneo  without  some  reference 
to  the  splendid  work  of  Uajah 
Brooke  in  Sarawak.  When  the 
late  Mr.  Brooke  came  in  1833, 
the  country  was  in  a  state  of 
"chronic  insurrection."  Two 
vears  afterwards  he  was  made 


Photo  by  Xegrttli  &  Zambra] 


TWO    JAVA    WOMEN. 

*  The  writer  is  greatly  indebted  to  Sir  Hugh  Low,  G.C.M.G.i  for  his  kindness  in  lending  the  valuable  photographs  of 
Dyas  and  Sakais  which  illustrate  the  text  of  this  chapter.  They  were  collected  by  Sir  Hugh's  son,  the  late  Mr.  H.  B.  Low ; 
and  some  taken  by  Mr.  Leonard  Wray,  of  the  Perak  Museum,  Taiping ;  others  by  Mr.  E.  J.  Robertson,  Singapore. 


Photo  by  Lambert  «  Co.] 


[Singapore. 


BATTAS . 

81 


82 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


rajah,  or  king.  The  condition  of  affairs  was  most  unpromising;  Malays  and  Dyas  were  for 
ever  fighting  among  themselves,  and  were  in  a  miserable  condition — especially  the  Dyas, 
whom  the  Malays  systematically  plundered.  The  personal  courage  exhibited  by  Mr.  Brooke, 
and  the  sagacity  and  firmness  with  which  he  put  down  some  of  the  earlier  conspiracies  against 
his  rule,  won  the  better  class  of  chiefs  to  his  side.  He  administered  the  law  with  a  strict 
justice  which  in  time  was  highly  appreciated.  "The  success  of  this  system,"  says  Mr.  W.  H. 
Guillemard,  "was  never  better  shown  than  during  the  Chinese  insurrection,  Avhen,  having 
narrowly  escaped  with  his  life — his  friends  killed  or  wounded,  his  house  burnt  down,  and 
much  of  the  town  destroyed — the  whole  population,  Malay  and  Dya  alike,  rallied  round  the 
English  rajah,  drove  out  and  almost  exterminated  the  invaders,  and  triumphantly  brought  him 
back  to  rule  over  them.  In  what  other  country  shall  we  find  rulers,  alien  in  race,  language, 


From  a  photograph  in  Ley  den  Mas 


and  religion,  yet  so  endeared  to  their  subjects?  And  the  phenomenon  is  still  more  marvellous 
when  we  consider  that  these  subjects  were  themselves  of  two  races — a  superior  and  an  inferior, 
an  oppressing  and  an  oppressed;  yet  both  alike  joined  to  bring  back  the  foreign  ruler  who  had 
introduced  equality  and  stopped  oppression.  It  requires  no  peculiar  legal  or  diplomatic  or 
legislative  training,  but  chiefly  patience  and  good  feeling,  and  the  absence  of  prejudice. 
The  great  thing  is  not  to  be  in  a  hurry;  to  avoid  over-legislation,  law  forms,  and  legal 
subtleties;  to  aim  first  to  make  the  people  contented  and  happy  in  their  own  way,  even  if 
that  way  should  be  quite  opposed  to  European  theories  of  how  they  ought  to  be  happy.  On 
such  principles  Sir  James  Brooke's  success  was  founded.  It  is  true  he  spent  a  fortune  instead 
of  making  one;  but  he  had  his  reward  in  having  brought  peace  and  safety  and  plenty 
where  there  was  before  war  and  oppression  and  famine,  and  in  leaving  behind  him  over  the 


JAVA  — SUMATRA 


whole  of  Northern  Borneo  a  reputation  for  wisdom,  for  goodness,  and  for  honour  which  will 
dignify  the  name  of  Englishmen  for  generations  to  come."* 

JAVA. 

THE  Island  of  Java  is  most  densely  populated  in  its  eastern  part.  In  the  year  1780  the 
population  was  about  2,000,000,  in  January  1890  it  was  estimated  at  nearly  23,000,000,  and 
in  1892  was  probably  as  much  as  24,000,000;  of  these  over  42,000  were  Europeans,  about 
13,000  "Arabs,"  and  233,717  Chinese.  Batavia,  the  capital  of  Western  Java,  is  the  great 
emporium  of  the  vast  archipelago,  and  traders'  vessels  come  hither  from  almost  every  island. 
In  this  province  weaving  is  a  great  industry.  The  Dutch  have  laid  down  many  railways,  and 


a  pkotof/ra/jh  in  Leyden  Museum. 


BATTA    WARRIORS. 


their  law  compels  every  peasant  to  work  a  certain  number  of  days  upon  the  roads,  with 
excellent  results.  The  customs  of  the  Malays  of  Java  call  for  no  special  description.  It  may 
be  mentioned,  however,  that,  whereas  among  the  Malays  generally  only  the  men  dance,  in 
Java  both  sexes  take  an  active  part  in  this  pastime.  Another  favourite  amusement  is  fighting 
with  wild  beasts,  and  even  the  tiger  and  the  rhinoceros  are  brought  into  the  arena. 

SUMATRA. 

THE  natives  of  Sumatra  are  all  Malays,  but  the  different  tribes  have  their  own  languages 
and  customs.  The  population  is  over  3,500,000.  They  are  fairly  civilised,  cultivating  the  land, 

*  The  reader  who  wishes  to  learn  more  about  Dyas  and  their  ways  should  consult  the  great  work  by  Mr.  Ling  Roth, 
on  "The  Sarawaks  of  North  British  Borneo"  (1896). 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


and  wearing  garments  of  cloth.  They  have  written  languages;  although  some  of  the  tribes  are 
no  higher  in  the  social  scale  than  the  Dyas  of  Borneo.  The  Achenese,  or  inhabitants  of  the 
Sultanate  of  Ache,  a  province  about  as  large  as  Ireland,  have  for  a  long  time  intermarried  with 
Arabs.  They  are  Mohammedans,  and  their  language  is  written  in  Arabic.  They  have  a  bad 
name  for  treachery  and  cruelty,  but  the  only  accounts  we  have  of  them  are  derived  from  the 
Dutch,  whom  they  have  been  fighting  for  more  than  twenty  years,  and  who  may  be  prejudiced. 
They  are  clever  craftsmen,  and  build  good  ships.  Every  man  is  a  soldier. 

The  Battas*  (see  illustrations,  pages  81-83),  to  the  south  of  Ache,  are  an  inland  hill  people, 
and  somewhat  like  the  Dyas  of  Borneo,  taller  and  darker  than  the  true  Malays.  Their  hair  is 
straight,  and  they  bear  no  trace  of  the  Negrito.  They  may  perhaps  have  come  under  Hindu 
influence.  For  centuries  they  have  been  cannibals,  their  victims  being  criminals,  slaves,  and 
prisoners  of  war.  Their  marriage  system  is  matriarchal,  as  in  Tibet — a  woman  having  several 
husbands,  and  holding  property  in  her  own  right. 

THE   PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS. 

THE  Spaniards  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  being  much  under  priestly  influence,  have  divided 
the  Malays  into  three  classes:  Indios  is  the  term  applied  to  those  who  have  become  Christians; 
Infteles  are  the  Pagans  of  the  interior;  while  the  Moros  (see  illustrations,  page  89)  are  the 
Sulus  and  other  Mohammedan  tribes.  These  Malays  have  olive  complexions,  broad  noses,  rather 
full  lips,  and  straight  hair,  which  is  nearly  black.  They  are  divided  into  a  large  number 
of  tribes,  each  speaking  a  different  dialect;  so  that  in  the  island  of  Luzon  alone  we  find 
as  many  as  twenty  different  dialects.  The  chief  tribes  here  are  Tagal  and  Bisayan,  which 
together  number  about  a  million  and  a  half,  and  are  still  rapidly  increasing.  The  Moros  are  an 
extremely  mixed  people.  For  centuries  the  Malay  pirates  filled  their  harems  with  women  from 
different  tribes  of  Malaysia,  even  sometimes  taking  European  women.  The  Chinese  are  very 
numerous  in  the  Philippines,  having  been  there  from  the  earliest  times,  and  had  it  not  been 
for  the  Spaniards  would  probably  have  overrun  the  whole  archipelago.  From  time  to  time 

*  According  to  Professor  Keane  the  current  form  Battak  is  incorrect.     It  is  plural.     The  singular  is  Batta. 


Photo  by  Dr.  F.  H.  II.  Guillemara] 


[  Cambridge. 


A    GROUP    OF    MALAYS. 


THE    PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 


wholesale  massacres  of  Chinese  have  taken  place.  At  different  periods  their  numbers  have 
risen  to  more  than  30,000,  only  to  be  reduced  by  slaughter  and  exile.  But  in  spite  of  this 
drawback  they  have  established  themselves  in  the  islands,  and  at  the  present  day  their  number 
is  computed  to  be  more  than  50,000.  Very  few  Chinese  women  leave  their  own  country,  and 
consequently  Celestial  emigrants  have  for  some  centuries  taken  native  women  as  wives.  In 


From  drawings  by  Dr.  Hans  Meyer  (by  permission). 

IGOROTTE   TATTOOING. 


looking  at  photographs  of  Philippine  Islanders  one  is  often  struck  with  the  strong  resemblance 
to  the  Chinese  type.  In  old  days,  moreover,  Mexicans  and  Peruvians  occasionally  established 
themselves  here,  and  in  the  island  of  Luzon  one  can  trace  also  the  effects  of  Japanese  influence. 
The  confusion  of  types  is  still  further  complicated  by  the  fact  that  the  Spaniards  have  mixed 
freely  both  with  the  native  Malays  and  with  the  half-castes;  indeed,  there  is  no  part  oj 
Australasia  which  presents  so  great  a  confusion  of  races. 


86 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


la  a  cosmopolitan  city 
like  Manila  and  its  suburbs, 
where  so  many  races  of 
humanity  assemble,  it  is  in- 
teresting to  observe  the  varied 
costumes  and  modes  of  attire. 
The  Americans  and  Europeans 
mostly  dress  in  white.  The 
Chinese  keep  to  their  own 
peculiar  national  dress,  with 
the  pig-tail  curled  up  into  a 
chignon.  Pure  natives  and 
many  half-breeds  wear  the 
shirt  outside  the  trousers. 
The  native  "lady"  wears  a 
flowing  skirt  of  gay  colours, 
bright  red,  green,  or  white. 
She  has  not  yet  adopted 
the  corset.  In  her  hand 
she  carries  a  fan,  without 
which  she  would  feel  lost,  and 
she  makes  a  great  display  of 
jewellery.  Her  gait  is  awk- 
ward, quite  unlike  the  digni- 
fied and  graceful  air  of  a 
Spanish  lady.  The  peasant 
women  look  very  picturesque 
in  their  short  skirts,  enveloped 
in  a  cotton  cloth  of  blue,  red, 
or  black.  A  "first-class" 
native  funeral  in  Manila  is  a 
remarkable  display.  The  bier 
is  hideous  with  rude  relics  of 
savage  ornaments.  A  native 
driver,  with  a  tall  "chimney- 
pot" hat,  drives  the  funeral  team  of  mules,  followed  by  a  band  playing  a  lively  march  and  a 
line  of  carriages  containing  the  deceased's  relations  and  friends. 

The  chief  amusement  of  the  natives  is  cock-fighting,  a  sport  carried  on  with  a  passionate 
earnestness  that  strikes  every  stranger.  Almost  every  native  keeps  a  fighting-cock.  Some  men 
are  seldom  seen  out  of  doors  without  their  favourites  under  their  arms.  They  pay  as  much 
as  fifty  dollars,  and  sometimes  even  more,  for  these  pets;  and  should  a  native  discover  that 
his  house  is  on  fire,  he  flies  to  rescue  his  bird  rather  than  his  wife  and  family.  This  passion 
for  cock-fighting  may  well  be  termed  a  national  vice.  Incredibly  large  sums,  in  proportion  to 
the  means  of  the  gamblers,  are  staked  on  the  result  of  a  match,  and  it  has  been  well  said 
that  the  sport  does  more  harm  and  causes  more  misery  than  the  earthquakes  and  typhoons 
together.  The  passion  for  the  game  leads  many  to  borrow  at  usury,  to  embezzlement,  and 
even  to  highway  robbery.  Many  of  the  pirates  are  ruined  gamesters. 

According  to  M.  Reclus,  the  population  of  the  Philippine  Archipelago  is  over  6,000,000; 
of  these  the  Christians  and  Chinese  make  up  about  2,500,000.  Here  we  have  a  country  which 
has  been  conquered  as  much  by  ecclesiastical  as  by  military  power.  The  Christianised  "  Indians  " 
(natives)  have,  to  some  extent,  grafted  their  new  religion  on  to  the  old  one.  Being  deeply 
superstitious,  they  became  ready  converts  of  the  Roman  Catholic  missionaries.  The  Church 


From  Dr.  A.  B.  Meyer's  '•'•Album  von  Philippinen  Typen,"  Dresden. 
A  NEGRITO   MAN,   WITH   SPEAR. 


THE    PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 


appealed  to  their  senses  by  its  brilliant  processions,  rich  robes,  and  images.  Even  the  smallest 
villages  have  now  their  religious  fetes.  The  priest  is  the  king  of  the  village,  and  looks  upon 
the  spread  of  knowledge  with  an  unfavourable  eye.  In  the  year  1886  there  were  no  fewer 
than  1,608  schools  in  the  Philippines.  At  the  time  of  writing  the  natives  are  at  war  with  the 
United  States  of  America,  and  the  future  of  the  islands  politically  cannot  be  forecast,  but  the 
Spanish  dominion  appears  to  be  doomed. 

The  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  Philippine  Islands  are  the  Negritos  (Aetas),  a  little  dark 
race — of  whom  we  shall  have  more  to  say  presently,  when  dealing  with  the  Malay  Peninsula — 
with  crisp  black  hair,  and  features  somewhat  like  those  of  a  Negro.  These  primitive  people 
are  found  in  the  islands  of  Luzon,  Mindoro,  Negros,  Pauay,  and  Mindanao,  but  not  as  a  pure 
race,  for  the  Malays  have  intermarried  with  them.  The  pure  Negrito  has  a  stature  of  only  about 
4  feet  6  inches,  the  skull  is  round  (brachycephalic),  the  legs  are  without  calves,  and  the  feet 
are  turned  inwards.  The  head  appears  to  be  rather  large  for  the  small  body.  The  man  and 
the  woman  shown  in  our  illustrations  have  their  bodies  decorated  with  deep  scars.  By  nature, 
these  people  are  gentle,  timid,  and  affectionate.  Their  mental  powers  are  of  a  low  order, 
and  they  cannot  count  beyond  the  number  of  fingers  on  one  hand.  They  mostly  wander 
about  from  place  to  place,  except  in  those  districts  where  Malays  and  others  have  influenced 
their  habits. 

The  Aeta  carries  a  bamboo  lance,  a  bow  of  palm 
wood,  and  poisoned  arrows.  He  is  wonderfully  light- 
footed,  running  with  great  speed  after  deer,  or  climbing 
trees  like  a  monkey.  If  he  has  any  religion  at  all, 
it  is  a  kind  of  spirit- worship.  Anything  which  to 
these  people  appears  to  have  a  supernatural  character 
is  deified.  For  the  dead  and  for  old  age  they  have 
a  profound  respect.  They  offer  little  encouragement 
to  those  who  endeavour  to  train  them  up  to  a  higher 
standard  of  life,  and  even  when  more  or  less  domesti- 
cated can  never  be  trusted  to  do  anything  which 
requires  an  effort  of  judgment. 

Mr.  John  Foreman,  F.R.G.S.,  was  fortunate 
enough  to  see  a  Negrito  wedding,  which  he  thus 
describes:  "The  young  bride,  who  might  have  been 
about  thirteen  years  of  age,  was  being  pursued  by 
her  future  spouse  as  she  pretended  to  run  away,  and 
it  need  hardly  be  said  that  he  succeeded  in  bringing 
her  in  by  feigned  force.  She  struggled  and  again 
got  away,  and  a  second  time  she  was  caught.  Then 
an  old  man  with  grey  hair  came  forward,  and 
dragged  the  young  man  up  a  bamboo  ladder.  An 
old  woman  grasped  the  bride,  and  both  followed  the 
bridegroom.  The  aged  sire  then  gave  them  a  ducking 
with  a  cocoanut  shell  full  of  water,  and  they  all 
descended.  The  happy  pair  knelt  down,  and  the 
elder  having  placed  their  heads  together,  they  were 
man  and  wife.  We  endeavoured  to  find  out  which 
hut  was  allotted  to  the  newly  married  couple,  but 
were  given  to  understand  that  until  the  sun  had  re- 
appeared five  times  they  would  spend  their  honeymoon 
in  the  mountains."  The  Negritos  live  principally 
on  fish,  roots,  and  mountain  rice,  but  they  often 
make  raids  on  the  valleys  and  carry  off  cattle:  their 


From  Dr.  A.  B.  Meyer's  "  Album  von  P/tUippinen 
Typen"  Dresden. 

A   NEGRITO   WOMAN. 


88 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


husbandry  is  of  the  most  primitive  kind;    it  consists  of   scraping  the  ground   and  throwing  in 
the  seeds.     They  do  not  even  cut  down  trees  to  make  a  clearing. 


THE   MALAY   PENINSULA. 

IN"  certain  parts  of  the  Malay  Peninsula — for  example,  in  the  valley  of  Batang-Padaug — we 
meet  with  a  very  wild  and  primitive  little  race  of  Negritos,  who  are  called  Sakais.  They  may  be 
regarded  as  the  pygmies  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  doubtless  come  from  the  same  very 
ancient  stock  as  the  Negritos  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  These  Sakais,  Semangs,  Jakuns,  or 
Orang  Benua  ("Men  of  the  Soil"),  as  they  are  variously  called  by  their  Malay  neighbours,  are 
more  numerous  than  was  until  recently  supposed,  and  in  the  year  1890  5,000  of  them  were 

said  to  live  in  the  Ylu  Pahang  district  alone.  Almost 
everywhere  they  have  intermarried  with  Malays.  They 
speak  a  language  which  possesses  names  only  for  the 
first  three  or  four  numerals.  When  unmixed  with 
Malay  blood,  the  Sakai  shows  the  true  Negrito  type 
even  in  an  exaggerated  form,  with  black  woolly  hair, 
a  large  round  head  (too  large  in  proportion  to  the 
body),  and  a  very  prominent  lower  jaw.  Among  special 
features  may  be  mentioned  the  crisp  black  beard,  an 
inner  fold  to  the  eyelid,  and  the  position  of  the  three 
outer  toes,  which  are  turned  toAvards  the  inner  two, 
as  in  many  apes.  The  Malays  say  there  are  two 
groups  of  Sakais — one  of  which  is  quite  wild  and  lives 
entirely  aloof  in  the  recesses  of  the  forest,  and  another 
which  associates  freely  with  settled  communities.  One 
of  Mr.  M.  Maclay's  photographs  is  described  by  Giglioli 
as  presenting  a  "highly  remarkable  exaggeration  of 
the  bestial  characters,  exceeding  even  the  Kalang  of 
Java  in  its  prognathism  [protruding  jaw]  ...  a  real 
chimpanzee  profile,  and  I  believe  the  highest  degree  of 
prognathism  possible  in  a  human  being." 

The  Malays,  who  call  themselves  the  "  Men  of 
the  Country,''  a  title  which  they  cannot  rightly  claim, 
since  the  Sakais  are  the  aborigines,  look  down  upon 
the  latter,  calling  them  "Men  of  the  Woods"  (Orang- 
utan], or  "Men  of  the  Hills"  (Orang-bukit).  Mr. 
Abraham  Hale,  who  spent  some  time  among  these 
primitive  little  people,  has  given  much  valuable 
information  concerning  their  habits  in  a  paper  read 
before  the  Anthropological  Institute  of  Great  Britain, 
and  to  this  source  we  are  indebted  for  the  following  information.  In  those  districts  where 
they  live  more  or'  less  by  themselves,  undemoralised  by  Malays,  they  are  simple-hearted, 
kind,  and  always  anxious  to  do  their  best  to  assist  any  white  man  who  may  happen  to 
want  their  aid.  Mr.  Hale  was  always  received  with  the  greatest  hospitality.  On  entering  a 
house,  a  bed  was  prepared  for  him  in  the  best  situation,  water  was  brought,  and  roots  of 
maize  or  of  tapioca  were  placed  on  the  ashes  of  the  fire  to  roast.  The  people  are  naturally 
inquisitive,  and  every  one  belonging  to  the  house  was  called  into  see  the  white  stranger  and 
his  belongings.  For  dress  the  men  wear  a  strip  of  bark-cloth  twisted  round  the  waist  and 
drawn  between  the  legs.  The  women  sometimes  wear  small  cotton-cloth  petticoats  (sarongs), 
purchased  from  the  Malays,  and  the  men  occasionally  adopt  Chinese  trousers;  but  in  their 
own  native  forests  none  of  these  luxuries  are  indulged  in.  Their  ornaments  are  of  the 


Taken  during  tin  M, -///;>•  K.rpHlitio,,  of  H..\[.S.  "  Chal- 
lenger" 1872-76.  Published  by  Horaburgh  &  Son,  Edin- 
burgh. Government  Copyright. 

A   MORO   INDIAN   GIRL. 


THE    MALAY    PENINSULA 


the  brass  support  of  the  ribs 
of  an  umbrella!  Through  the 
septum  of  the  nose  they  wear 
either  a  porcupine  quill  or  a 
bone  of  a  bird.  Earrings  are 
also  worn.  The  Sakais  paint 
their  faces  (as  our  illustra- 
tions on  pages  90-96  show) 
Avith  juice  from  a  plant 
Avhich  they  cultivate  for  the 
purpose.  Their  hair  is  gene- 
rally worn  in  true  Negrito 
style,  standing  out  from  the 
head  all  round  in  a  great 
mop;  but  near  the  Malay 

•ii  j/u          j  i/u    •  Taken  during  the 

villages  they  drop   their  own     scientific  Expeditu 

•      •>.•         *     i_-  j     4.-      ±1  ofH.M.S.  "  Cha!lenr/fr." 

primitive  fashion  and  tie  the     1872-76.  published  6y  HO 
hair  back  in  a  knot,  as  their 
neighbours    do.      When    they 


simplest  kind;  the  men's 
bracelets  and  belts  are  made 
from  a  black  leafless  aquatic 
creeper  that  grows  in  the 
mountain  streams.  The 
women  make  bracelets  of  any 
curiosities  they  can  get  from 
the  Malays.  One,  which  Mr. 
Hale  purchased  from  an  old 
woman,  was  made  up  of  the 
following  strange  collection — 
nine  strings  of  black  and 
white  seeds,  a  string  of  old 
Malay  copper  coins,  a  few 
glass  beads,  one  tip  of  a 
squirrel's  tail,  two  tufts  of 
monkey's  hair,  a  serpent-ring 
(or  spiral)  made  of  brass  wire, 
five  snail-shells,  and  part  of 


A    MORO    INDIAN. 


9o 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


dance,  the  women  wear  wreaths  of 
sweet-smelling  grasses  and  leaves.  A 
French  writer,  speaking  of  their  dress 
and  ornaments,  says:  "The  whole 
effect  is  an  indescribably  strange 
mixture  of  grace  and  horror,  flowers 
and  rags,  carnival  and  Avoodland 
poetry.  The  little  figure  gives  an 
impression  of  something  child-like  and 
fairy-like  too;  these  little  beings  with 
great  flowering  antennae  are  the  forest 
gnomes,  the  goblins,  Avhich  for  once 
have  shown,  in  the  full  sunlight,  a 
vision  of  the  moonlight."  In  their 
wild  state  they  eat  all  the  animal 
food  they  can  get,  devouring  even 
snakes  and  lizards;  but  they  will  not 
take  the  trouble  to  go  in  search  of 
animal  food  until  all  their  stock  of 
fruits  and  vegetables  is  exhausted. 
Once  in  about  three  months  a  big 
fishing  party  is  organised;  but  as  the 
art  of  drying  fish  is  not  understood, 
the  feast  ends  in  a  few  days,  because 
what  remains  uneaten  is  no  longer 
eatable. 

They  appear  to  have  but  two 
manufactured  foods.  One  is  made 
from  the  tubers  of  a  wild  tapioca; 
these  roots,  if  eaten  in  their  natural 
state,  are  said  to  cause  a  sort  of 
drunkenness,  or  perhaps  merely  sleepiness.  They  place  the  roots  about  4  feet  deep  in  the 
mud  of  a  swamp.  After  they  have  lain  there  four  nights  they  are  lifted  and  brought  home, 
and  the  women  set  to  work  to  rasp  the  now  soft  roots  up  into  a  pulp,  using  a  prickly  rattan 
for  a  rasp.  At  this  stage  they  have  a  particularly  sour  and  pungent  smell.  The  pulp  is  then 
put  into  a  mat,  and  the  juice  most  carefully  squeezed  out.  This  is  done  by  means  of  a  simple 
lever,  one  end  of  a  long  piece  of  timber  being  put  under  the  wall  of  the  house,  the  bag  of 
pulp  placed  under  the  lever,  and  a  woman  sitting  on  the  other  end  soon  expresses  all  the 
water.  The  dried  pulp  is  then  squeezed  into  a  joint  of  bamboo  and  dried  over  the  fire;  it 
will  then  keep  for  a  month. 

The  Sakais  rise  about  dawn  and  prepare  their  breakfast,  probably  roasted  tapioca  and 
some  sugar-cane.  Fires  soon  begin  to  burn  briskly,  for  the  hill-tops  are  chilly.  Breakfast 
over,  some  of  the  men  go  and  collect  firewood  and  food.  Others  stay  at  home,  work  in  the 
house,  or  make  darts  for  the  sumpitan,  or  blow-pipe,  used  in  hunting.  The  only  other  meal 
is  served  at  midnight.  But  those  who  are  indoors  during  the  day  are  continually  eating. 
About  9  p.m.  they  retire  to  rest,  only  to  wake  up  at  twelve,  light  up  the  fires,  and  take 
food  again,  after  which  they  sleep  on  till  dawn.  Dancing  and  song  of  a  very  primitive 
description  are  reserved  for  the  afternoon.  The  sumpitan  (see  illustration  above),  already 
referred  to  earlier  in  this  chapter  as  a  weapon  of  the  Dyas,  is  a  straight  tube  of  bamboo, 
fitted  with  a  mouthpiece  something  like  that  of  a  cornet.  Being  very  thin  and  delicate, 
it  is  kept  inside  another  tube.  The  darts  are  from  8  to  11  inches  long,  made  from  the 
midrib  of  a  palm  leaf.  One  end  of  a  dart  is  sharpened  and  dressed  with  poison;  the  other 


Pholo  by  Mr.  Leonard  Wray,  Ptrak  Must 

TWO   NEGRITOS,   WITH   SUMPITAN 


SIR  HUGH  Low  COLLECTIC 


THE    MALAY    PENINSULA 


end  is  provided  with  a  small  hub  of  pith.  A  wad  of  some  kind  is  necessary,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  velvet-like  covering  found  at  the  base  of  the  midribs  of  the  leaves  of  some  rattans 
(bamboo)  is  used.  It  is  a  deadly  weapon. 

The  roof  of  a  Sakai  house  is  supported  on  nine  posts;  these  are  very  slight,  and  some  of 
them  are  crooked,  but  one  of  the  number  is  much  stouter  than  the  others,  being  composed 
of  the  trunk  of  a  tree.  All  the  rafters,  uprights  of  the  walls,  joists,  etc.,  are  entirely  made  of 
bamboo.  Bark  and  leaves  are  often  used  for  the  partitions.  Each  hearth  is  simply  a  mat  of 
leaves,  over  which  earth  is  spread.  On  this  logs  of  wood  are  burned — two  logs  at  a  time, 
arranged  so  that  their  ends  are  nearly  touching,  and  small  sticks  burn  between  and  under  the 
ends.  Where  a  man  supports  two  or  three  wives,  each  has  her  own  separate  hearth. 

On  two  occasions  Mr.  Hale  witnessed  a  Sakai  dance.  A  man  commences  the  performance 
by  beating  a  drum.  This  very  primitive  (musical  ?)  instrument  is  made  from  a  section  of  a 
tree  trunk,  hollowed  out  by  burning.  Across  one  end  the  skin  of  some  animal,  perhaps  that 
of  a  monkey,  is  stretched  and  kept  taut  by  means  of  cords.  This  is  the  only  instrument 
used.  After  about  five  mintues  of  very  monotonous  drum-beating,  to  a  one-two  time  tune, 
another  man  gets  up  and  performs  a  dance;  or  perhaps  two  men  dance.  It  is  an  extremely 
simple  performance,  consisting  of  certain  gesticulations,  the  chief  of  which  is  a  sort  of  curtsey 
made  once  to  every  one-two  beat  of  the  drum.  At  the  same  time  the  man  makes  grotesque 
gestures  with  his  hands.  After  about  an  hour  the  men  squat  about  on  logs  of  wood,  and 
commence  a  dreary  chant  to  the  same  tune.  The  song  closes  with  a  shout  or  cry,  something 
like  "  Heugh!  "  The  song  apparently  consists  of  nothing  more  than  a  repetition  of  the  names 
of  a  number  of  mountains,  rivers,  and  other  natural  objects  in  the  Sakai  country.  Later  on 


Photo  by  Mr.  E.  J.  Boberttm] 


A    GROUP    OF    NEGRITOS. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


From  "  Le  Tour  du  Monde:'1 

A   NEGRITO   MAN,    WITH    SPEAR. 


which  he  pronounced  after 
having  blown  the  fumes 
[of  aromatic  gum  and 
wood]  of  his  censer  from 
his  hand,  most  probably  to 
the  four  winds,  as  he  faced 
to  the  four  points  of  the 
compass,  pronouncing  the 
word  and  blowing  the  fumes 
to  each.  He  told  me  that 
the  word  Sum'bat  meant 
the  same  as  Salamat  means 
in  Malay — i.e.  either  '  Hail ' 
him  to  whom  he 


or 
prayed; 


be   unto  you. 
he    said    to    the 


I    asked 

Hantus.  Now,  Hantu  in  Malay  may  be  taken  to  mean 
either  Ghost  or  Spirit  only — not  God;  the  spirit  may 
also  be  either  benignant  or  malignant.  I  then  asked 
him  to  tell  me  what  Hantu,  and  he  said  the  Hantus 
of  the  forest,  of  the  mountains,  of  the  rivers,  of  the 
winds;  also  the  Hantus  of  Malay  and  Sakai  chiefs  who 
had  died;  also  the  Hantus  of  headache,  of  stomach-ache — 
the  Hantus  that  caused  his  people  to  gamble,  to  smoke 
opium,  and  who  sent  all  sorts  of  disputes,  and  who  sent 
mosquitoes.  He  prayed  to  these  Hantus  to  be  kind  to 
him  and  to  his  people — to  send  plenty  of  food  to  eat,  and 
not  to  send  any  evil  things.  He  further  said  that  the 
Sakais  do  not  pray  to  Allah — that  is,  to  God.  The 
question,  undecided  in  my  mind  as  yet,  is  whether  this 
worship  was  learned  from  the  Sakais  by  the  Malay  Pawangs 
of  the  present  day  who  practise  it,  or  vice  versd." 


the  women  come  forward,  and 
go  through  certain  evolutions, 
clapping  their  hands  frequently 
and  making  curtseys.  The 
other  musical  instruments  are 
bamboo  flutes  and  whistles,  a 
Jew's  harp,  and  a  simple  guitar. 
"  My  friend  who  accom- 
panied me,"  says  Mr.  Hale, 
"and  I,  both  considered  that 
the  effect  was  perfectly  har- 
monious. The  music  of  the 
Sakais  is  in  fact  very  pretty, 
much  more  so  than  the  Malay 
music  as  a  rule.  I  took  the 
opportunity  to  question  the 
chief  concerning  his  prayer, 
which  he  delivered  in  a  queer 
mixture  of  Malay  and  Sakai, 
preceding  each  string  of  peti- 
tions by  the  expression  Sum'bat, 


"  Le  Tour  du  Monde." 

TWO   NEGRITO   WOMEN. 


THE    MALAY    PENINSULA 


93 


As  every  anthropologist  is  aware,  it  is  most  difficult  for  travellers  to  obtain  clear  and  true 
information  with  regard  to  the  religion  of  any  savage  race.  According  to  Mr.  Hale's  testimony, 
which  he  gives  for  what  it  is  worth,  the  Sakais  offer  up  prayers  to  a  great  variety  of  spirits — 
spirits  of  the  forest,  of  the  mountains,  of  the  rivers,  of  the  winds,  and  also  of  chiefs  now 
departed. 

When  a  Sakai  dies,  the  friends  bury  with  the  corpse  some  of  the  articles  which  the 
deceased  used  in  daily  life, — such  as  a  necklace,  if  a  woman;  or  a  rattan  tobacco-box,  if  a  man. 
The  house  of  death  is  invarjably  burned  down,  and  the  place  entirely  forsaken — even  if  it 
involves  the  loss  of  a  crop  of  tapioca  or  sugar-cane.  All  the  objects  that  belonged  to  the 
dead  are  considered  to  be  bartered  or  given  away. 

Professor  Keane,  in  his  latest  work  "Man  Past  and  Present,*'  says  of  these  little  people: 
''  Surrounded  from  time  out  of  mind  by  Malay  peoples,  some  semi-civilised,  some  nearly  as  wild 
as  themselves,  but  all  alike  slowly  crowding  them  out  of  the  land,  these  aborigines  have 
developed  defensive  qualities  unneeded  by  the  more  favoured  insular  Negritos,  while  their 
natural  development  has  been  arrested  at  perhaps  a  somewhat  lower  plane  of  culture.  In 
fact,  doomed  to  extinction  before  their  time,  they  never  have  had  a  chance  in  the  race,  as 
Mr.  Hugh  Clifford  sings  in  'The  Song  of  the  Last  Semangs':— 


The  paths  are  rough,  the  trails  are  blind 

The  Jungle  People  tread; 
The  yams  are  scarce  and  hard  to  find 

With  which  our  folk  are  fed. 


We  suffer  yet  a  little  space 
Until  we  pass  away, 

The  relics  of  an  ancient  race 
That  ne'er  has  had  its  day. 


Photo  by  Mr.  E.  J.  Robtrtsoit] 


A   GROUP   OF   NEGRITOS. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


These  peculiar  Semangs,  who  have  hitherto  succeeded  in  maintaining  their  independence, 
have  a  weird  legend  of  a  mysterious  nation  of  great  Amazons  destined  one  day  to  come  and 
smite  the  faithless  Sakai  people,  who  have  gone  over  to  the  enemy's  camp,  and  now  join  with 
them  in  tracking  and  hunting  down  their  own  kinsfolk.  These  female  warriors — who  dwell 
in  the  depths  of  the  dark  woodlands  beyond  the  Gunong  Korbu  heights,  and  are  stronger, 
taller,  bolder,  and  of  paler  colour  than  any  men — have  even  been  seen,  and  their  bows  and 
blow-pipes  also,  larger  and  truer  and  better  carved  than  any  others,  are  found  now  and  then 
in  the  deep  recesses  of  the  forests.  A  Semang  chief  tells  how,  '  many  months  ago,'  he  and 
his  two  brothers,  when  following  the  trail  of  a  wounded  stag,  found  it  lying  by  a  brook,  killed 
by  a  larger  arrow  than  theirs,  and  that  instant,  looking  up,  on  hearing  a  loud  threatening  cry 
in  a  strange  tongue,  he  beheld  a  gigantic  pale-skinned  woman  breaking  through  the  jungle, 


Photo  by  Mr.  E.  J.  Hobertaon\ 


[Singapore. 


and  then  his  elder  brother  fell  pierced  by  an  arrow.  He  escaped  by  flight,  and  alone  lived 
to  tell  the  tale,  for  the  two  brothers  were  never  seen  again.  Mr.  Clifford,  who  relates  this 
story  ('In  Court  and  Kampong,'  -1897,  page  179  sq.),  and  has  perhaps  been  more  intimately 
associated  with  the  Orang-utan  (Wild  Men),  as  the  Malays  often  call  them,  than  any  other 
white  man,  describes  those  of  the  Plus  Kiver  Valley  as  'like  African  Negroes  seen  through 
the  reverse  end  of  a  field-glass.  They  are  sooty-black  in  colour;  their  hair  is  short  and 
woolly,  clinging  to  the  scalp  in  little  crisp  curls;  their  noses  are  flat,  their  lips  protrude,  and 
their  features  are  those  of  pure  Negroid  type.  They  are  sturdily  built  and  well  set  upon  their 
legs,  but  in  stature  little  better  than  dwarfs.  They  live  by  hunting,  and  have  no  permanent 
dwellings,  camping  in  little  family  groups  wherever,  for  the  moment,  game  is  most  plentiful.'" 

Professor  Keane  goes  on  to  say:    "All  the    faculties  are  sharpened  mainly  in  the   quest 
for  food,  and  of  means  to  elude   the  enemy  now  closing  round   their  farthest  retreats  in  the 


Mr.  Leonard  Wray,  Perak  Museum 


SIB  HUGH  Low  COIJLECTION. 


NEGRITO   WOMEN. 
95 


96 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


upland  forests.  When  hard 
pressed  and  escape  seems  im- 
possible, they  will  climb  trees 
and  stretch  rattan  ropes  from 
branch  to  branch  where  these 
are  too  wide  apart  to  be 
reached  at  a  bound,  and  along 
such  frail  aerial  bridges  women 
and  all  will  pass  with  their 
cooking-pots  and  other  effects, 
with  their  babies  also  at  the 
breast,  and  the  little  ones 
clinging  to  their  mothers' 
heels.  For,  like  the 
Andamanese,  they  love  their 
women-folk  and  children,  and 
in  this  way  rescue  them  from 
the  Malay  raiders  and  slavers. 
But,  unless  the  British  raj 
soon  intervenes,  their  fate  is 
sealed.  They  may  slip  from 
the  Malays,  but  not  from  their 
own  traitorous  kinsmen,  who 
often  lead  the  hunt,  and  squat 
all  night  long  on  the  tree- 
tops,  calling  one  to  another 
and  signalling  from  these  look- 
outs when  the  leaves  rustle 
and  the  rattans  are  heaved 
across;  so  that  nothing  can  be 
done,  and  another  family  group 
is  swept  away  into  bondage." 
A  Sakai  man,  when  looking  out  for  a  wife,  goes  to  a  considerable  distance,  generally  to  a 
tribe  who  speak  quite  a  different  dialect.  He  gives  the  parents  presents  of  considerable  value, 
which  are  sometimes  purchased  from  Malays.  la  some  cases  the  young  man  sets  to  work 
and  clears  one  or  two  acres  of  jungle,  and  plants  it  with  tapioca  and  sugar-cane,  in  order  to 
present  it  to  the  parents  of  the  girl  he  wishes  to  make  his  wife. 


Photo  by  Mr.  Leonard   \Yray,  Perak  Museum. 

NEGRITO   WOMEN. 


THE   STRAITS   SETTLEMENTS. 

FORMERLY  attached  to  British  India,  the  Straits  Settlements  now  form  a  Crown  Colony,  with 
a  separate  administration  vested  in  a  Governor  at  Singapore  and  two  others  at  Penang  and 
Malacca.  Perak,  Selangor,  Negri  Sembilan,  Pahang,  and  Johor  are  "Protected  States."  Taking 
the  population  of  Singapore,  Penang,  and  Malacca  together,  we  find  there  are  roughly  speaking, 
213,000  Malays,  228,000  Chinese,  and  54,000  Klings  (Indians). 


CHAPTER  V. 
SI  AM,   AN  AM,    CAMBODIA,   BURMA. 


THE  chief  inhabitants  of  Indo-China  and  Malacca  are  the  Shans,  Laos,  and  Siamese,  the 
Anamese  and  Cambodians.  Not  so  long  ago  this  part  of  the  world  was  generally  supposed  to  be 
occupied  only  by  Mongolian  peoples  allied  to  Chinese  and  Tibetans.  Of  late  years,  however, 
a  Caucasian  element  has  been  discovered  in  the  Me  Kong  Valley  (French  Cochin-China  and 
Cambodia),  where  the  people  speak  languages  akin  to  those  of  the  Malayo-Polynesian  family. 


SIAM. 

THE  kingdom  of  Siam  (see  map,  page  130)  embraces  part  of  the  Indo-Chinese  and  part  of  the 

Malay   Peninsula.      On   the   west   lies   British . 

Burma;  on  the  north,  as  a  buffer  between 
Siam  and  China,  are  the  Independent  Shan 
States;  on  the  east  lies  the  kingdom  of 
Anam,  under  which  heads  are  included  Tong- 
king  and  Cochin-Chiua;  and  south  of  Siam 
we  find  Cambodia  and  French  Cochin-China. 
The  great  natural  and  economic  centre 
of  Siam  is  the  delta  of  the  Me  Nam  Eiver, 
which  is  flooded  every  year  between  June 
and  November.  The  population  is  estimated 
by  the  Siamese  Government  at  6,000,000,  or 
more.  Until  a  few  years  ago  the  eastern 
frontier  coincided  with  the  mountains  that 
border  Anam;  but  the  French,  by  a  display 
of  force,  compelled  the  king  to  sign  a  treaty, 
which  surrendered  to  them  part  of  his 
kingdom,  and  shifted  the  eastern  frontier 
westwards  to  the  right  bank  of  the  River 
Me  Kong.  In  this  way  the  French  took 
possession  of  a  region  80,000  square  miles 
in  extent.  England  then  intervened,  and 
the  region  from  Tongking  to  British  Burma 
was  left  to  form  a  "buffer  state"  between 
Britain,  China,  France,  and  Siam.  By  this, 
and  other  arrangements,  Siam  is  now  prac- 
tically reduced  to  the  Me  Nam  Valley.  She 
still  retains  a  part  of  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
which  is  called  Lower  Siam,  and  to  the 
eastward  the  Korat  Plateau  and  Battambony 
Plain. 


98 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Photo  by  Mr.  H.  Warington  Smyth. 
A   SHAN   MAN. 


Both  Shans  and  Siamese  proper  call  themselves  Tai 
(Shan  Tai),  i.e.  "free."  Assam  may  be  a  translation  of 
the  word  Shan.  The  obsolete  Siamese  word  is  Siem,  and 
the  Chinese  Sien-lo,  the  Sien  being,  according  to  them,  a 
tribe  which  came  north  about  A.D.  1341.  The  Siamese  call 
Shans  "Great  Tai,"  as  having  preceded  them,  and  them- 
selves "  Little  Tai."  There  is  certainly  a  close  relationship 
between  them;  but  the  Siamese,  having  had  much  intercourse 
with  the  Malays,  and  other  southern  races,  are  of  inferior 
physique.  The  Cambodian  kingdom  formerly  extended  much 
farther  north.  Tradition  says  that  the  town  of  Lapong  wa& 
founded  in  575,  and  that  the  half-mythical  king  Phra  Euang 
freed  the  Siamese  from  the  Cambodian  yoke. 

The  Siamese  proper  are  a  well-formed  people,  with  olive 
complexion  and  black  hair.  They  are  darker  than  the 
Chinese,  but  fairer  and  handsomer  than  the  Malays.  Their 
eyes  are  well  shaped,  the  lips  rather  prominent;  the  nose 
is  slightly  flattened,  the  face  rather  wide  across  the  cheek- 
bones, the  top  of  the  forehead  pointed,  and  the  chin  short. 
They  are  dearly  fond  of  bathing  and  swimming  in  their 

rivers  many  times  in  the  course  of '  the  day,  a  practice  rendered  almost  necessary  by  the  heat 
of  the  climate.  Many  of  the  men  shave  off  the  hair  of  the  head,  leaving  only  a  coarse  tuft 
on  the  top.  The  preservation  of  this  tuft,  and  the  changes  it  undergoes  under  different 
circumstances,  are  matters  of  considerable  social  importance.  The  tuft  on  a  child's  head 
is  prettily  knotted,  and  kept  together  by  a  gold  or  silver  pin,  unless  the  family  are  poor, 
in  which  case  a  porcupine  quill  serves  instead;  but  it  is  generally  wreathed  with  fragrant 
flowers.  The  shaving  of  the  hair-tuft  of  children  is  an  important  family  festival,  to 
which  friends  and  relations  are  invited.  Displays  of  fireworks  announce  the  event.  Priests 
recite  prayers  and  wash  the  head  of  the  young  person,  who  is  decorated  with  all  the 
jewellery  the  family  can  lay  their  hands  on.  Music  is  played  during  the  ceremony; 
congratulations,  together  with  gifts  of  silver,  are  presented  to  the  newly  shorn  one.  One 
seldom  sees  a  bearded  man,  for  the  hairs  on  the  chin  are  generally  plucked  out.  The 
passion  for  ornaments  is  universal.  Scarcely  a  family  is  so  poor  as  not  to  possess  some 
jewellery.  Kings  of  silver  and  gold  adorn  the  arms  and  legs  of  children;  and  rich  necklaces, 
earrings,  and  belts  are  sometimes  worn  in  such  quantity  as  to  embarrass  the  wearer's- 
movements. 

As  among  the  Chinese,  so  here  also  long  nails  are  regarded  as  a  mark  of  aristocracy;  and 
every  art  is  employed  for  making  the  teeth  black,  betel  and  areca  being  used  to  accomplish  this- 
object.  As  a  rule,  the  people  go  about  barefooted.  The  Siamese  are  decidedly  a  sober  race, 
though  when  a  man  takes  to  strong  drink  he  generally  becomes  a  hopeless  drunkard.  Opium- 
smoking,  owing  to  severe  edicts  against  the  practice,  has  not  increased  very  much  of  late 
years.  Tobacco  is  smoked  a  good  deal,  and  tea  is  used  almost  as  freely  as  in  China. 

Bishop  Pallegoix,  who  knew  the  Siamese  very  well,  was  favourably  impressed  with  the 
character  of  these  people.  "They  are,"  he  says,  "gentle,  cheerful,  timid,  careless,  and  almost 
passionless.  They  are  disposed  to  idleness,  inconstancy,  and  exaction;  they  are  liberal  alms- 
givers,  and  severe  in  all  matters  of  decorum.  They  are  fond  of  sports,  and  lose  half  their 
time  in  amusements.  They  are  sharp,  and  even  witty  in  conversation,  and  resemble  the 
Chinese  in  their  aptitude  for  imitation."  Serious  disputes  are  of  rare  occurrence,  and  strangers- 
can  rely  upon  being  hospitably  received. 

Eeverence  for  authority  appears  as  the  ground-work  on  which  all  institutions  and  habits 
are  founded,  and  is  developed  to  the  most  absurd  extremes.  No  man  of  inferior  rank  dares- 
to  raise  his  head  to  the  level  of  that  of  his  superior;  no  person  can  cross  a  bridge  if  some 


IOO 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


one  of  higher  grade  happens  to  be  passing  below;  no  mean  person  may  walk  upon  a  floor 
above  that  occupied  by  his  betters.  As  in  China,  great  respect  is  shown  to  old  age.  The 
king  is  treated  as  almost  diviue,  and  his  subjects  on  approaching  him  must  prostrate  themselves 
hundreds  of  times.  A  person  of  rank  is  approached  by  his  attendants  in  a  peculiar  prostrate 
position,  the  number  of  prostrations  being  determined  by  his  rank. 

The  education  of  women  is  much  neglected;  few  of  them  can  read  or  write.  Many, 
however,  are  taught  music;  and  the  wives  and  concubines  of  nobles  are  frequently  engaged  in 
singing  and  in  giving  concerts  for  the  amusement  of  their  lords  and  guests.  A  few  can 
embroider,  many  more  can  prepare  sweetmeats  and  other  delicacies  for  the  table.  No  sooner 
has  a  child  been  born  than  the  mother  is  placed  near  a  large  fire,  where  she  remains  for 
days,  exposed  to  such  intense  heat  that  serious  illness  and  even  death  sometimes  ensue.  So 
strong  is  the  prejudice  in  favour  of  this  barbarous  practice,  both  among  high  and  low,  that 
the  king  himself  has  vainly  attempted  to  stop  it. 

Marriages  take  place  at  an  early  age.  When  the  necessary  negotiations  have  been  nearly 
completed,  the  bridegroom  travels  by  water  to  the  house  of  the  bride-elect,  in  a  large  boat 
gaily  adorned  with  flags,  and  laden  with  presents,  such  as  garments  for  his  future  wife,  plates, 
fruits,  betel-nut,  etc.  In  the  centre  is  a  huge  cake,  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid,  and  decorated 
with  bright  colours.  Musicians  in  the  boat  play  as  it  glides  along.  Arrived  at  his  destination, 
the  bridegroom  lands  and  makes  his  way  to  the  house  to  arrange  the  final  details  and  to  fix 
the  happy  day.  There  is  no  religious  ceremony,  only  a  great  feast,  at  which  the  musicians 
again  perform. 

When  any  one  is  grievously  ill,  the  priests  sprinkle  holy  water  over  him,  recite  passages 
from  the  sacred  books,  and  utter  loud  exclamations.  When  death  takes  place,  the  family 
address  the  deceased  in  some  such  terms  as  these:  "0  father,  benefactor,  why  leave  us? 
What  have  we  done  to  offend  you?  Why  depart  alone?  It  was  your  own  fault;  why  did 
you  eat  the  fruit  that  caused  the  dysentery?  0  misery!  0  desolation!"  The  body,  having 

been  washed  and  enveloped  in  white  cloth, 
is  placed  in  a  coffin  covered  with  gilded 
paper  and  decorated  with  tinsel  flowers.  A 
dais  is  prepared  ornamented  with  the  same 
materials  as  the  coffin,  but  with  wreaths  of 
flowers  and  a  number  of  wax  lights.  After 
a  day  or  two  the  coffin  is  removed,  not 
through  the  door,  but  through  an  opening 
specially  made  in  the  wall.  It  is  then  carried 
three  times  round  the  house  at  full  speed, 
in  the  hope  that  the  ghost  of  the  dead 
person,  forgetting  the  way  through  which  he 
or  she  has  passed,  will  not  be  able  to  return 
to  molest  the  living.  The  coffin  is  then 
taken,  to  the  sound  of  melancholy  music,  to 
a  large  barge,  and  placed  on  a  platform 
surmounted  by  the  dais.  A  procession  of 
small  boats  containing  the  friends  and  re- 
lations accompanies  the  barge  to  the  temple, 
where  the  cremation  takes  place.  The  officials 
charged  with  this  duty  wash  the  face  of 
the  corpse  with  cocoanut  milk.  With  the 
poorest  people,  however,  the  body,  instead 
of  being  cremated,  is  cut  up  and  given  to 

ptwto  by  Mr.  u.  ir.  Roife}  [Bangkok.          the  birds  of    P1"6?-      After  a   cremation,   the 

A  BUDDHIST  PRIEST.  relations     assemble,      collect      the     principal 


SIAM 


101 


bones,  which  they  place  in 
an  urn  and  convey  them  to 
the  family  abode.  The  garb 
of  mourning  is  white.  At  a 
rich  man's  funeral  there  are 
fireworks,  sermons  by  the 
priests,  and  theatricals  wherein 
all  sorts  of  monsters  are  in- 
troduced. Tents  are  erected 
within  the  precincts  of  the 
temple,  and  games  and  gam- 
bling accompany  the  sacred 
rites  connected  Avith  the 
dead. 

The  Siamese  are  a 
musical  people  and  possess 
a  great  variety  of  Avind  and 
stringed  instruments.  They 
have  no  Avritten  music,  their 
tunes  being  taught  by  ear 
alone.  The  profession  of  music 
is  highly  esteemed.  In  every 
nobleman's  house  there  is 
music  and  dancing  in  the 
evening.  Cock-fighting, 
though  forbidden,  is  a 
favourite  sport.  Crowds  sur- 
round the  scene  of  combat. 
A  courageous  game-cock  is 
a  great  treasure  and  the 
object  of  special  attention. 
The  passion  for  gaming  and 

betting   seems   unchecked   by   public    opinion,    but    the    Government    is    taking    steps   to   check 
these  evils.     Young  and  old  also  indulge  in  kite-flying. 

The  domain  of  the  Shans  and  the  Laos,  who  are  of  one  and  the  same  race,  occupies 
the  Avhole  of  Northern  Siam  and  a  portion  of  East  Burma,  Avhence  it  stretches  far  into 
Yuu-nan,  and  down  the  Me  Kong  Elver  to  the  frontier  of  Cambodia.  Hence  the  allegiance 
of  these  people  is  divided  between  Burma,  China,  and  Siam.  Ethnographically,  of  course,  they 
belong  to  the  Siamese  proper,  as  they  are  all  members  of  the  Tai  ("free"  or  "noble")  race. 
The  Chinese  have  partly  absorbed  them,  driving  them  southwards  into  Yun-nan  and  Further 
India.  Here  they  become  more  or  less  assimilated  to  the  Khas,  or  Avild  aboriginal  tribes 
of  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula.  The  Avord  Kha  means  "man,"  or  "savage."  The  physical 
characteristics  of  the  Tai  race  are  a  IOAV  stature,  light  yelloAV  complexion,  black  hair  and 
eyes,  small  nose,  dilated  nostrils,  and  a  somewhat  dull  expression  of  countenance.  On  the 
Avhole,  it  is  not  a  pleasing  type,  although  the  children  are  often  pretty,  and  the  Avomen 
may  be  fairly  good-looking  while  yet  in  their  teens.  (For  illustrations  of  Shan  people,  see 
pages  98,  116,  117). 

The  domain  of  the  Laos  is  divided  into  many  provinces,  ruled  by  hereditary  princes, 
under  the  superintendence  of  commissioners  appointed  by  the  King  of  Siam.  These  Lao 
states  were  long  subjected  to  regular  slave-hunting  expeditions,  organised  by  the  rulers 
themselves,  or  by  their  subordinates.  Dr.  Harmand,  an  eye-witness  of  one  of  these  forays, 
says:  "The  brother  of  the  Prince  of  Bassac  told  me  without  any  reserve  that  he  Avas  about  to 


Photo  by  Mr.  II.  IF.  Rolfe\ 


A    ROYAL    PRIEST,    SIAM. 


102 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


take  a  trip  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Me  Kong  in  order  to  hunt  down  the  Khas.  It  seems 
that  when  times  are  bad  the  Lao  mandarins  organise  these  expeditions  against  the  savages. 
Under  some  slight  pretext  a  favourable  camping-ground  is  selected,  whence  forays  are  made 
against  the  surrounding  villages.  When  a  sufficient  number  of  all  ages  and  both  sexes  have 
been  captured,  they  are  bound  together,  and  led  to  Bassac,  Sienpang,  and  Attopeu.  Here  they 
are  purchased  by  native,  Chinese,  and  especially  Malay  traders,  who  form  them  into  gangs, 
and  forward  them  chiefly  to  Bangkok,  Korat,  and  Pnompenh,  the  capital  of  Cambodia."  But 
this  slave-hunting  has  now  ceased. 

The  traditions  of  the  Northern  Shans  tell  of  an  ancient  and  great  kingdom  held  by 
them  in  the  north  of  Burma.  They  all  speak  the  same  language,  but  there  are  many  dialects. 
In  the  Tai  or  Shan  language  there  are,  according  to  Mr.  J.  G.  Scott,  four  different  characters 
in  use.  The  AVestern  Shans  use  letters  very  much  like  those  of  the  Burmese;  the  Siamese 
have  a  writing  of  their  own,  very  much  like  Pali;  the  Shans  called  Lii  have  theirs,  and  the 
Lao  Shans  use  another.  The  Western  Shans  differ  somewhat  from  their  eastern  neighbours 
both  in  their  dress  and  in  their  architecture.  The  men's  dress,  usually  white,  consists  of  a 
short  jacket  and  full  trousers,  but  on  festive  occasions  coloured  silk  and  velvet  trousers  are 
much  worn,  and  the  most  fashionable  shape  is  that  which  most  nearly  approaches  a  sack  with 
holes  at  the  corners  for  the  feet  and  arms  to  pass  through.  The  women  wear  variegated 
turbans  and  striped  petticoats,  made  like  a  sack,  open  at  both  ends,  and  fastened  over  the 
breasts  and  under  the  arms.  A  small  jacket  is  worn  over  this.  The  Shans  are  a  law-abiding 
people,  and  loyal  to  the  families  of  their  rulers.  A  Shan  of  good  birth  is  very  proud  of 
his  family. 

Among  the  Western  Shans  marriage  is  a  very  simple  affair.  As  a  rule,  the  young  people 
merely  eat  rice  together  out  of  the  same  dish  in  the  presence  of  their  relatives  and  the 
village  elders,  and  the  bridegroom  then  declares  that  he  marries  the  girl  and  will  support 

her.  Among  the  Eastern  Shans,  however, 
there  is  more  ceremony  on  the  wedding 
day.  A  feast  is  held,  to  which  all  the  rela- 
tives and  many  friends  are  invited.  Liquor 
flows  freely  on  these  occasions.  Early  in 
the  afternoon  the  bridegroom  is  taken  to 
the  bride's  house,  accompanied  by  the 
relatives  and  friends.  As  the  procession 
advances  it  finds  its  way  obstructed  at 
various  points  by  ropes,  at  each  of  which 
the  bridegroom  has  to  pay  toll.  When 
the  governor  of  a  district  of  Reng  Tung 
married  the  Sawbwa's  aunt,  he  had  to  pass 
twenty  of  these  ropes  in  the  distance  of 
half  a  mile.  The  Sawbwa  himself  had  a 
rope,  and  so  had  each  of  the  royal  ladies, 
the  bridegroom  on  this  occasion  being 
mulcted  of  about  seventy  rupees.  The 
Sawbwa's  sister  demanded  twenty  rupees  for 
permission  to  pass,  but  eventually  accepted 
fifteen.  Arrived  at  the  bride's  house,  the 
bridegroom  takes  his  seat  beside  her,  and 
their  hands  are  tied  together,  with  a  piece 
of  string;  they  eat  together  and  an  old 
man  pronounces  them  to  be  man  and  wife. 
Meanwhile,  the  guests  amuse  themselves  by 
throwing  balls  of  rice  at  each  other  and  at 
SIAMESE  STREET-SINGERS.  the  happy  couple. 


SIAM 


103 


The  burial  customs  of  the  Shans  are  sufficiently  interesting  to  be  briefly  described.  When 
a  person  dies,  the  corpse  is  washed,  dressed  in  a  new  suit,  and  some  money  is  put  into  the 
mouth;  this  "passage-money"  is  considered  to  be  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  any  let  or 
hindrance  to  the  transmigration  of  the  soul.  The  priests  recite  prayers  over  the  body  daily, 
until  the  day  of  the  funeral,  when  the  corpse  is  carried  out  in  a  coffin  highly  decorated  with 
coloured  paper  and  tinsel,  under  a  gaudy  canopy.  The  eldest  son  heads  the  procession  with  a 
naked  sword  in  his  hand,  in  order  to  clear  the  way,  which  is  supposed  to  be  barred  by  evil 
spirits,  and  the  relations  dance  as  they  go  along.  Presents  for  the  priests,  such  as  yellow 
robes,  handkerchiefs,  and  umbrellas,  are  carried  to  the  grave.  Arrived  there,  the  wife  or 
wives,  and  children,  and  the  brother's  wife  or  wives,  all  go  in  procession  round  the  coffin, 
carrying  lighted  candles  as  a  last  sign  of  respect  for  the  departed;  rthe  priests  then  recite  a 
few  prayers,  and  the  body  is  buried;  sometimes  a  rocket  is  fired.  Priests  and  chiefs  are 
burned,  not  buried,  since  burning  is  considered  more  honourable. 

Both  Shaus  and  Burmese  believe  that  a  man's  spirit  takes  the  form  of  a  butterfly,  which 
leaves  him  when  he  is  asleep  or  unconscious.  Hence  they  are  unwilling  to  awaken  any  one 
suddenly,  "for  fear,"  as  they  say,  "that  his  butterfly  may  not  return  in  time."  Nominally 
Buddhists,  they  are  given  to  the  worship  of  spirits,  or  Nats,  the  genii  supposed  to  reside  in 
all  natural  and  material  objects — stones,  mountains,  rivers,  trees,  clouds,  winds,  etc.  In  some 
places  buffaloes  are  sacrificed  to  the  spirits;  and  there  are  Nats  which  can  only  be  appeased 
by  human  sacrifices.  The  guardian  spirit  of  a  certain  ferry,  for  instance,  claims  a  victim  every 
year,  preferably  a  Chinaman;  and  if  no  one  is  obliging  enough  to  be  accidentally  drowned 


Photo  by  Mr.  Isonaga] 


[Bangkok. 


A   TYPICAL   SIAMESE   NOBLEMAN   AND   FAMILY. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


at  the  proper  season,  a  boat-load  of 
passengers  is  capsized  in  order  that  the 
ferry  may  be  safe  for  the  ensuing  year. 
A  human  sacrifice  is  necessary  to  pro- 
cure a  good  harvest;  and  although  the 
Shans  dare  not  in  these  days  openly 
kill  a  fellow-creature  as  a  sacrifice,  they 
endeavour  to  poison  some  one  at  a 
State  festival.  The  chiefs  set  their  faces 
against  the  custom,  but  cannot  suppress 
it  altogether. 

The  people  of  Siam  have  for  ages 
intermarried  with  Laos,  Shaus,  Peguans, 
Cambodians,  and  Chinese,  as  well  as  with 
slaves  of  the  aborigines,  or  Khas,  of 
whom  many  quite  different  tribes  are 
found.  Hence  the  type  is  varied. 

Not  very  much  is  known  about  the 
Khas.  While  the  Laos  inhabit  the 
mountain  valleys,  these  people  live  on 
ridges  and  heights,  never  less  than 
3,000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and 
their  clearings  in  the  forest  on  the 
high  hill-slopes  are  often  visible  many 
a  mile  away.  The  Siamese  name  Kha 
Che  is  generally  applied  to  all  of  them. 
According  to  Mr.  H.  Wariugton  Smyth, 
F.R.G.S.,  author  of  the  interesting  work 
"Five  Years  in  Siam,"  they  are  a  short, 
thick-set  people.  They  live  in  small 
communities,  with  no  chiefs,  and  possess 
no  social  organisation.  Mr.  Warington 
Smyth  says:  "Notwithstanding  their 
wild  and  savage  mien,  the  Khas  are 
gentle,  harmless  folk,  patient  and  enduring  on  the  march,  and  grand  climbers."  At  the  same 
time  he  speaks  of  their  "singular  stupidity."  He  has  very  kindly  lent  some  of  the  photographs 
here  reproduced. 

ANAM. 

THE  kingdom  of  Anam  occupies  the  eastern  side  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula,  and  is  bordered 
on  the  south  by  Lower  Cochin-China  and  the  subject  kingdom  of  Cambodia.  The  French, 
having  established  themselves  on  the  Me  Kong  Delta,  have  asserted  their  authority  throughout 
the  whole  of  Anam,  and  made  it  a  vassal  state.  It  consists  of  three  divisions:  Tongking,  i.e. 
the  "Eastern  Land";  Lower  Cochin-China,  or  the  "Interior  Land";  and  Chiampa,  in  the 
south-east  corner  of  the  peninsula.  The  country  has  a  population  roughly  estimated  at  from 
10,000,000  to  20,000,000. 

The  civilised  inhabitants  of  the  above  countries  present  a  striking  uniformity  of  physical 
and  mental  characteristics.  They  appear  to  have  been  moulded  in  the  course  of  ages,  partly  by 
geographical  and  partly  by  political  conditions,  into  a  homogeneous  ethnographical  group. 

The  Anamite  man  is  scarcely  of  middle  height,  shorter  and  less  vigorous  than  his 
neighbours;  his  complexion  is  tawny,  but  darker  than  that  of  the  Chinese;  the  forehead  is  low, 


Le  Tour  clu  Monde." 

A   YOUNG   COUPLE    (KHAS). 


Photo  by  Mr.  Isonaya} 


A    SIAMESE    PRINCE. 
105 


io6 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


and  the  skull  slightly  depressed  at  the  top,  but  well  developed  at  the  sides.  The  face  is  flat, 
with  high  cheek-bones;  the  nose  is  small,  the  mouth  large  with  thick  lips.  The  body  is  thick-set 
and  large.  The  long  black  hair,  shaven  in  childhood,  but  never  afterwards  cut,  is  worn  in 
a  sort  of  chignon  at  the  back  of  the  head.  There  is  a  curious  swagger  in  the  gait  of  the  Anamite, 
which  has  been  described  as  theatrical,  and  it  serves  to  distinguish  him  from,  all  the  other 
Indo-Chinese  races.  Another  peculiarity  is  a  greater  separation  of  the  big  toe  from  the  rest 
than  is  found  in  any  other  people  that  walk  barefooted.  The  name  Giao-shi,  by  which 
the  Anamites  have  been  known  from  ages  before  the  Christian  era,  means  "separated  toes," 
and  some  authorities  regard  this  as  a  true  racial  characteristic;  but  as  Mr.  Keane  points  out, 
it  may  be  due  to  the  stirrup  used  in  riding,  which  is  gripped  in  the  cleft  between  the  big 
toe  and  the  others.  According  to  ancient  Chinese  chronicles,  this  curious  feature  was  noticed 
as  far  back  as  2285  B.C.  The  Anamites  appear  to  have  intermarried  with  Malays,  Chinese,  and 
Cambodians,  so  that  many  cross-breeds  are  to  be  found. 

It  is  impossible,  even  after  making  all  due  allowances  for  their  surroundings,  to  speak 
highly  of  these  people,  with  their  coarse  and  'repulsive  features.  Morally  they  are  the  most 
disagreeable  of  all  the  peoples  of  Indo-China.  M.  Mouhot  says:  "They  are  headstrong, 
revengeful,  deceitful,  thieves,  and  liars.  Their  dirty  habits  surpass  anything  I  have  ever  seen, 

and  their  food  is  abominably  nasty, 
rotten  fish  and  dogs  being  their  favourite 
diet."  Even  Lord  Curzon,  who  is  favour- 
ably disposed  towards  them,  cannot  deny 
that  they  are  tricky  and  deceitful;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  he  considers  them 
gentle  and  amiable.  "They  have,"  he 
says,  "the  submissiveness  without  the 
nerveless  apathy  of  the  Hindu;  while 
they  possess  industrial  aptitudes,  rendering 
them  diligent  workmen,  and  an  artistic 
ingenuity  which  on  the  one  hand  makes 
them  excellent  cooks,  and  on  the  other 
inspires  the  various  artistic  productions, 
such  as  inlaid  work  in  mother-of-pearl, 
embroideries,  wood-carving,  and  jewellery. 
Though  not  a  courageous  people  in  the 
sense  of  inviting  or  voluntarily  meeting 
danger,  they  are  very  tenacious  in  re- 
sistance, and  make  capital  soldiers  against 
an  Asiatic  enemy.  They  are,  moreover, 
hospitable,  polite,  lively,  sentimental,  and 
of  easy  temper.  The  women  present  two 
types:  the  wife,  or  concubine,  who  is 
merely  the  brainless  instrument  of  her 
master's  pleasure,  and  the  active  and 
business-like  housewife,  who  toils  hard 
either  in  the  fields  or  at  the  oar,  and 
who,  in  the  upper  ranks  of  life,  frequently 
takes  to  business  and  manages  all  her 
husband's  affairs." 

Polygamy    is    iiniversal     among    the 
Anamese.      They  dispose  of  the  dead  by 
burial,    not    by    cremation.      They    show 
A  GROUP  OF  LAO  PEOPLE.  great  outward  respect  for  their  superiors 


Fro 


ANAM 


107 


and  parents,  but  take  great  delight  in  mocking  and  banter.  Their  attachment  to  the  soil  of 
their  country  is  very  strong,  and  they  never  leave  it  for  long.  The  form  of  government  is 
absolute  monarchy,  and  the  succession  to  the  throne  follows  the  order  of  primogeniture.  Public 
offices  are  open  to  all,  and  there  are  no  social  distinctions  other  than  those  due  to  office. 
Hence  all  citizens  who  are  not  officials  are  on  terms  of  equality. 

The  Anamese  are  not  a  religious  people,  but  have  great  respect  for  the  dead;  their 
worship  consists  chiefly  of  ceremonies  in  honour  of  their  ancestors.  In  other  respects  their 
religion,  if  so  it  may  be  called,  is  a  strange  mixture  of  cults  and  creeds.  Buddhism,  the 
dominant  creed,  is  overlaid  by  coarse,  popular  superstitions,  and  there  is  a  great  deal  of  spirit- 


Photo  by  Signor  Seato] 


[Handalay. 


BURMESE    DANCING-GIRLS. 


worship,  or  crude  demonology.  At  their  pagodas  incense  is  burned  to  the  good  or  evil  spirit 
of  the  place  (genius  loci),  or  perhaps  to  the  dreaded  tiger.  In  Tongking  there  are  said  to  be 
more  than  500,000  Christians. 

Among  the  most  picturesque  and  characteristic  of  Anamite  spectacles  are  the  markets, 
which  are  thus  described  by  the  present  Viceroy  of  India  (Lord  Curzou):  "They  are  held  on 
stated  days  in  the  week,  either  in  an  open  place  in  the  middle  of  the  village,  frequently  tiled 
over,  or  thatched  as  a  protection  against  the  sun — the  site  being  the  property  of  the 
commune  and  being  let  out  in  plots  or  stalls — or  sometimes  in  the  open  country  at  a  central 
spot  between  several  hamlets.  Marketing  is  entirely  conducted  by  the  female  sex,  who  may 


io8 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


be  seen  for  miles  walking  in  single  file  along  the 
narrow  dykes  which  separate  the  soaking  rice-plots, 
and  carrying  their  produce  in  baskets  at  the  end 
of  a  bamboo  pole.  Others  will  approach  in  sampans 
along  the  waterways  and  canals.  When  business 
opens,  there  is  just  such  a  jabbering  as  in  the 
monkey-house  in  the  Zoo.  The  women  squat  down 
by  the  side  of  their  wares  and  intersperse  a  ceaseless 
chatter  with  chewing  of  the  betel-leaf  and  ejection 
of  long  splashes  of  scarlet  saliva  from  their  discoloured 
mouths.  You  will  see  exposed  for  sale  pigs,  chickens, 
and  ducks  in  hampers,  fish  fresh  and  slimy,  and 
sun-dried  big  prawns  and  tiny  land-crabs,  cabbages, 
radishes,  the  areca-nut,  vermicelli,  cakes,  sweetmeats, 
and  eggs.  Elsewhere  will  be  cheap  articles  of  furni- 
ture or  raiment,  tin  lamps  for  petroleum,  pottery, 
brass-ware,  opium-pipes,  bracelets,  necklets,  amber 
buttons,  palm-leaf  hats,  turbans,  Bombay  cotton,  and 


CAMBODIA. 

THE  ancient  kingdom  of  Cambodia  has  long  been 
restricted  to  the  lower  course  of  the  Me  Kong  River. 
For  some  time  it  was  a  vassal  of  the  Siamese 
kingdom;  but  the  king  is  now  subject  to '  France. 
The  stupendous  ruins  of  Angkor  Vaht  and  many 
other  remains  are  evidence  of  the  former  greatness 
of  this  old  empire.  The  finest  of  these  monuments, 
which  are  now  in  Siamese  territory,  cover  a  space 
of  twenty  square  miles,  and  have  been  carefully 
studied  by  French  archaeologists.  Lord  Curzon  says 
they  form  "the  most  remarkable  collection  of  ruins 
in  the  world,  whether  we  regard  the  prodigious 
magnitude  of  the  ground-plan,  the  grandiose  dimen- 
sions of  the  principal  palaces  and  temples,  or  the 
artistic  beauty  and  delicacy  of  the  bas-reliefs  and 
sculptures."  There  is  reason  to  believe — although  the 
French  savants  do  not  accept  this  view — that  they 
were  built  by  the  Cambodians  under  the  direction 
of  Brahman  missionaries  from  India,  who  introduced 
Aryan  culture  among  the  rude  inhabitants  of  the 
country. 

"Some  of  these  wild  tribes,"  says  Keane,  "are  still  distinguished  by  a  gentle  disposition, 
a  certain  innate  politeness  and  courtesy,  as  well  as  a  surprising  artistic  taste  and  skill  lavished 
on  their  dress,  ornaments,  pipes,  quivers,  and  other  objects.  These  traits  may  well  be  the 
faint  reflection  of  a  now  extinguished  culture  still  cherished  by  these  children  of  nature,  lost 
for  ages  amid  their  dense  woodlands,  which  they  believe  to  be  the  centre  of  the  universe,  and 
which  nothing  can  ever  induce  them  to  leave.  But  the  Cambodians  themselves  seem  to  have 
retained  little  of  their  former  greatness,  except  an  overwhelming  pride  and  arrogance.  They 
are  being  gradually  absorbed  by  the  surrounding  Anamese  and  Lao  populations.  A  strange 
mystery  hangs  over  this  Cambodian  race,  who,  fully  2,000  years  ago,  built  cities  and  raised 
monuments  amid  the  swamps  of  Tonle-sap,  vying  in  size  and  grandeur  with  those  of  the 


Photo  by  Signm-  Beuto]  \_Mandalay. 

A    BURMESE    NATIVE,    WITH    TATTOOED    LEGS. 


BURMA 


in 


marriages,  as  in  India,  and  the  people  seem  happy  in  their  domestic  affairs.  Although 
girls  are  considered  to  be  the  property  of  their  parents,  they  are  very  seldom  constrained 
to  marry  against  their  will.  The  young  men,  too,  make  love  pretty  much  where  their 
fancy  leads  them,  obtaining  first  the  consent  of  the  parents.  The  period  of  day  between 
eight  in  the  evening  and  midnight  is  called  courting- time;  in  Burmese  it  is  "  loo-lyo-lai- 
thee-kala."  The  Burmese  mother  is  a  great  match-maker,  but  she  uses  persuasion  rather 
than  compulsion.  If  she  tries  constraint,  it  generally  results  in  the  girl  eloping  with  the 
lover  of  her  choice  or  committing  suicide.  The  women  carry  on  most  of  the  trading  and  shop- 
keeping,  and  are  excellent  housekeepers,  as  Mr.  Rudyard  Kipling  shows  in  one  of  his  short 
stories  of  Indian  life.  Mr.  E.  W.  Cuming's  excellent  book  "With  the  Jungle  Folk  in  Burma" 
Avill  be  found  to  contain  a  very  true  picture  of  these  people. 


DACOITS    IN   PRISON. 


Every  jail  in  Burma  contains  a  certain  number  of  prisoners  undergoing  penal  servitude 
for  life — reckless  desperadoes  whose  presence  is  a  standing  source  of  anxiety  to  those  in  charge 
of  them.  The  Burmese  dread  imprisonment  above  all  things.  Lazy  and  indolent  by  nature, 
and  accustomed  to  the  unrestrained  liberty  of  the  jungle,  they  prefer  death  itself  to  being 
shut  up  within  the  walls  of  a  prison.  The  most  revolting  type  of  human  ugliness  is  the 
Burmese  jail-bird,  with  his  shaven  head  and  the  unmistakable  stamp  of  "criminal"  on  his 
vicious  face.  The  dacoits  have  quaint  devices  tattooed  on  their  bodies  as  charms  against 
death  or  capture.  Some  have  rows  of  unsightly  warts,  like  large  peas,  upon  the  breast  and 
arms,  which  mark  the  spots  where  charms  have  been  inserted — scraps  of  metal  and  other 
substances  inscribed  with  spells  known  only  to  the  wise  men  who  deal  in  such  things. 

In   the   north   of   Burma    are    found    the    Singpos  and   Kachins,   formerly  supposed   to  be 


112 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


distinct  races,  but  now  generally  regarded  as  one  people,  although 
divided  up  into  many  tribes.  The  Siugpos  claim  to  be  the 
elder  branch  of  the  family.  To  the  same  group  belong  the 
Chins  of  the  Chin  Hills  and  the  Lushai  of  the  Lushai  Hills. 
These  tribes  are  closely  related  to  the  Nagas  and  the  Arbors 
of  Assam  (India),  and  their  territory  was  formerly  a  borderland 
between  Burma  in  the  east  and  India  (mouth  of  the  Brahma- 
pootra) in  the  west.  They  are  all  Kuki,  or  "Hill  Men."  The 
Kachins  are  a  square-faced  people,  with  strong  jaws  and 
oblique  eyes,  like  all  Mongols.  The  Chins,  who  have  been 
fully  described  by  Messrs.  Bertram  S.  Carey  and  H.  N.  Tuck 
in  their  valuable  work  "The  Chin  Hills,"  printed  by  the 
Government  at  Rangoon,  are  a  fine  race,  taller  and  stouter 
than  their  neighbours  in  the  plains  on  both  the  north  and  east. 
Though  falling  short  of  the  Pathans  in  height,  they  are  taller 
than  the  average  Ghoorka.  They  are  strong,  carrying  heavy  loads 
"SHWE  MAONG,"  FOUNDER  OF  THE  with  ease.  In  their  habits  they  are  very  dirty,  although  they 

wash  themselves   occasionally.       Some    Chins   wear   their   hair  in 

a  top-knot,  coiling  it  all  into  one  ball  well  forward  on  the  crown  of  the  head.  Others  wear  a 
chignon  on  the  nape  of  the  neck.  Hats  and  coats,  made  of  bark,  grass,  bamboo,  or  the  leaf 
of  the  date-palm,  are  worn  to  protect  the  body  from  rain.  Boots  and  sandals  are  unknown  in 
the  hills.  Fashions  among  the  women  vary  greatly.  Formerly  the  women  went  about  half 
naked — that  is,  bare  down  to  the  hips;  now  they  appear  in  public  wearing  a  coat  which  covers 
the  bosom.  The  houses  are  built  with  planks,  one-storeyed  and  with  a  thatch  roof;  they  have 
no  windows  or  chimneys,  and  the  smoke  escapes  anyhow.  The  floor  is  some  feet  above  the 
ground;  underneath  are  the  pigs  and  cattle.  The  labour  of  building  a  house  is  enormous;  it 
takes  from  three  to  ten  years;  for  not  only  is  the  amount  of  material  used  very  large,  but 
poles  and  planks  have  to  be  felled  and  dragged  some  miles  to  the  village. 

The  Chins  endeavour  to  act  up  to  their  old  adage,  "A  man  should  drink,  fight,  and 
hunt,  and  the  portion  for  women  and  slaves  is  work."  One  can  hardly  visit  a  village  without 
seeing  an  assemblage  of  people  sitting  round  the  liquor-pots,  while  the  beating  of  gongs 
announces  that  a  feast  is  going  on.  Birth  aud  marriage,  death  and  sacrifice,  the  payment  of 
a  debt,  the  courting  of  a  sweetheart,  the  making  of  an  agreement,  the  slaughter  of  an  enemy, 
and  the  shooting  of  a  deer,  all  demand  their  feasts,  and  a  feast  means  a  drinking-bout  of 
many  days'  duration.  Beasts  are  brought  in  aud  slain.  Women  and  slaves  wait  on  the  guests, 
throwing  a  lump  of  meat  into  any  basket  which  is  empty. 
The  music  consists  of  blowing  the  horns  and  beating  the 
gongs  in  regular  time;  while  the  dancers,  in  a  large  'circle 
with  arms  locked  round  each  other,  swing  the  body  and  keep 
step,  singing  at  the  same  time  a  low,  mournful  tune. 

If  there  are  any  lethal  weapons  in  the  house  in  which 
a  feast  is  to  be  given,  they  are  prudently  sent  to  a  neigh- 
bour, to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  drunken  people;  so  that 
the  frequent  quarrels  that  ensue  are  generally  settled  by  a 
fight  with  fists.  But  in  the  south,  where  hairpins  are  worn, 
quarrellers  often  draw  them  and  stab  one  another,  sometimes 
with  fatal  results.  When  sufficiently  sober,  the  young  men 
often  wrestle,  an  exercise  in  which  they  excel.  The  heads 

of  the  animals  killed  at  a  feast  are  used  to  adorn  the  //  ]  "'""I  '  '  ':"  """"^^-viJ 
verandah  of  the  host's  house. 

When   a  child   is  born,    its   ears   are   bored   with   a   quill       ^DRIA'N'"  A  RUSSIAN  HAIRY  MAN 
or  a  hairpin,  and  after  about  a  month  its  hair  is  shaved  and  OVER  FIFTY-FIVE  YEARS  OLD. 


BURMA 


kept  so  for  a  few  years.  In  the  north  the  eldest  boy  is  given  part  of  the  name  of  the 
paternal  grandfather,  and  the  eldest  daughter  part  of  that  of  the  maternal  grandmother  • 
but  in  the  south  the  names  are  chosen  independently  of  any  rule. 

When  a  Chin  dies,  his  body  rests  sitting  in  state,  dressed  and  fully  armed,  whilst  his 
relations  and  friends  dance  and  drink  round  the  corpse,  firing  off  their  guns  and  singing  songs 
which  set  forth  the  number  of  raids  in  which  the  deceased  has  successfully  taken  a  part, 
the  number  of  slaves  he  captured,  and  the  number  of  heads  which  he  took.  The  body  is  then 
taken  to  an  outhouse,  and  placed  on  a  board,  under  which  fires  are  lighted  and  kept  burning 
until  the  corpse  dries  up  and  becomes  practically  a  mummy.  It  is  afterwards  rolled  up  in 
rags  and  placed  on  a  shelf  in  the  house,  awaiting  the  funeral  feast,  which  is  sometimes 
delayed  for  two  years.  In  the  north  the  Chin  people  erect  rude  memorials  to  their  departed 
chiefs.  These  are  simply  thick  planks  of  wood,  with  the  head  of  a  man  carved  at  the  top,  to 


P/wto  by  Siynor  Beato] 


[Mandalay. 


THRKE   BURMESE   GIRLS. 


represent  the  dead  chief;  underneath  they  carve  men,  women,  and  children,  all  sorts  of 
animals,  gongs,  beads,  guns,  etc.  The  figures  represent  the  chiefs  wife  and  family,  the 
enemies  and  animals  he  killed,  and  the  slaves  and  booty  captured.  The  departed  hero  is  often 
represented  as  shooting  an  elephant  or  a  tiger.  But  nowadays  the  Chins  are  ceasing  to  set 
up  these  interesting  memorials.  "We  can  no  longer  take  heads  and  raid  slaves,"  they  say; 
"  therefore  the  histoiy  of  our  lives  is  not  worth  handing  down  to  posterity." 

Those  who  are  well  acquainted  with  the  Chins  say  they  are  all  liars  and  thieves,  and  that  the 
most  accomplished  thieves  in  all  this  district  of  the  Chin  Hills  are  the  tribe  known  as  Siyins, 
who  may  in  this  respect  be  classed  as  criminals.  The  Haka  people  and  others  are  also  great 
thieves,  and,  like  the  Siyins,  will  work  in  gangs,  some  distracting  attention,  whilst  others  carry 
off  the  booty.  Hakas,  as  well  as  Siyins,  we  are  sorry  to  say,  have  been  known  to  accept  a 
present,  and  then  deliberately  steal  from  the  benefactor !  The  Falam  chiefs,  too,  although  they 
are  so  particular  in  their  outward  conduct,  and  pretend  that  they  are  superior  to  all  other  Chins, 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


have  been  found  capable  of  stealing  iron  when  they 
thought  that  they  had  the  chance  of  doing  so  and 
evading  detection.  Messrs.  Carey  and  Tuck  (to  whose 
valuable  work  we  have  already  alluded)  say  that  a  Siyin 
can  creep  into  a  British  "post"  on  his  stomach,  and 
carry  off  cooking-pots  under  the  very  nose  of  a  sentry! 
He  can  even  enter  a  house  inside  the  posts,  and  carry 
off  property  without  disturbing  the  inmates! 

The  Northern  Chins,  apparently,  do  not  believe 
in  a  Supreme  Being.  The  Southern  Chins,  while 
believing  in  a  god  (Kozin)  to  whom  they  sacrifice, 
do  not  worship  him,  never  looking  to  him  for  any 
grace  or  mercy,  except  that  of  withholding  plagues 
and  misfortunes.  Besides  this  Kozin  the  southern 
people  believe  in  many  spirits.  There  are  the  spirit 
of  the  village  (genius  loci  of  the  Romans);  the 
spirit  of  the  family,  or  clan,  residing  in  trees,  or  in 
particular  tracts  which  the  clan  inhabit;  the  spirit 
of  the  cultivations,  living  in  the  fields;  the  spirit  of 
the  air;  the  spirit  of  the  stream,  or  the  jungle, 
or  the  hills.  The  Chins  say  there  is  no  Supreme 
God,  and  no  other  world  save  this,  which  is  full 
of  evil  spirits,  who  inhabit  the  fields,  infest  the 
houses,  and  haunt  the  jungles.  These  spirits  must 
be  propitiated,  otherwise  they  may  do  grievous  harm, 
such  as  destroying  the  crops  or  making  women  barren. 
When  a  man  dies,  his  soul  joins  the  spirit-world  of 
the  forests;  if  he  die  a  natural  death,  his  spirit  is 
content;  but  if  he  has  been  slain,  it  will  haunt  his 
relations  until  his  death  is  avenged  in  blood.  The 
slain,  however,  becomes  the  slave  of  the  slayer  in  the 
spirit-world;  so  that  if  a  man  has  killed  many  people 
in  this  life,  he  will  have  many  slaves  to  attend  him 
in  the  next.  One  can  hardly  expect  people  who  cherish 
such  beliefs  to  live  at  peace  with  one  another. 

"When  a  man  falls  sick,  he  attributes  his  illness 
to  some  evil  spirit,  and  accordingly  sacrifices  a  young 
fowl  or  a  small  dog.  If  he  gets  well,  it  is  a  sign 
that  the  spirit  is  appeased.  '  In  all  villages  there 
is  a  wise  man  or  woman,  who  is  believed  to  under- 
stand what  the  spirits  require,  and  who  is  accordingly 
consulted  as  to  what  should  be  sacrificed. 
The  wise  man  does  not  hesitate  to  ask  many  prying  questions  with  regard  to  the 
unfortunate  suppliant's  recent  conduct.  These  inquiries  concluded,  he  will  probably  announce 
that  the  spirit  of  some  stream  has  been  insulted!  Such  a  dire  offence  can  only  be  atoned 
for  by  the  sacrifice  of  a  red  cock  on  the  bank  of  the  stream  whose  spirit  claims  redress. 
Sometimes  a  pig  is  sacrificed;  the  animal  is  slain  by  the  wise  man  himself,  who  mutters  to 
the  spirit,  "You  have  wanted  a  pig,  and  so  one  has  been  killed;  now  be  satisfied,  and  remove 
the  sickness  which  you  have  put  upon  the  man."  It  need  hardly  be  added  that  the  wise 
man  always  helps  to  eat  the  flesh  which  he  has  ordered  for  the  spirit;  and  generally  he 
chooses  pig,  because  he  is  fond  of  pork  himself,  and  therefore  perhaps  the  spirit  also  prefers 
it!  So  much  eating  and  drinking  accompanies  all  ceremonies  that  one  cannot  tell  without 


Photo  by  tiignor  Beato]  [Mandalay. 

A   BURMESE    PRINCESS. 


Photo  by  Signor  B< 


[Jlandalay. 


A   BURMESE   LILY. 
115 


n6 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


asking  whether  any  given  assemblage  of   people  are 
keeping  a  feast,  a  burial,  or  a  sacrifice. 

In  the  south  of  the  Chin  Hills  they  believe 
that  a  man  can  take  to  the  next  world  anything 
that  is  buried  with  him;  hence  many  things  are 
put  in  graves,  such  as  guns,  gongs,  and  even 
cooking-pots.  These  interesting  customs  throsv 
light  on  the  well-known  fact  that  in  the 
prehistoric  burial-mounds,  dolmens,  etc.,  of  Europe 
and  Asia  weapons  and  utensils  are  found  buried 
with  the  skeleton  or  the  ashes,  as  the  case  may 
be  (the  present  writer  has  dealt  with  this  subject 
in  his  work  on  "Prehistoric  Man  and  Beast"). 
These  superstitious  people  believe  that  evil  spirits 
may  seize  them,  maltreat  them,  or  inflict  diseases 
and  death  upon  them.  AVhen  an  epidemic  of 
cholera  broke  out  among  some  Chins  who  went 
on  a  visit  to.  Eangoon,  they  carried  drawn  swords 
whenever  they  moved  about,  in  order  to  scare 
away  the  evil  spirit,  and  spent  the  whole  day 
hiding  under  bushes,  so  that  he  should  not  be 
able  to  find  them.  The  Southern  Chins  even 
begged  that  they  might  be  allowed  to  sacrifice  a 
slave  boy  to  the  foreign  spirit  to  whose  influence 
the  outbreak  was  attributed;  but  humaner  counsels 
at  last  prevailed,  and  they  were  allowed  to  sacrifice 
pariah  dogs  instead.  Messrs.  Carey  and  Tuck  relate 
how,  owing  to  the  belief  that  spirits  wander  about 
at  night,  a  small  Burmese  slave  once  escaped.  The 
boy  was  creeping  silently  towards  their  post  at 
night,  when  he  Avas  detected  by  one  of  their  sentries, 
who  •  at  once  cocked  his  gun.  The  small  boy 
quietly  sat  down  in  the  long  grass,  while  another 
sentry  seized  the  man's  gun  and  cried  out,  "  Do 
not  shoot;  it  is  a  spirit,  and  misfortune  will  fall 
on  us."  Meanwhile,  the  boy  quietly  glided  off,  and  reached  the  post  in  safety. 

The  chiefs  have  a  sacred  grove  within  which  is  a  rock  used  as  an  altar,  on  which  are 
laid  food  and  various  odds  and  ends.  "In  dealing  with  a  Chin,  it  is  right  to  remember  that 
his  spirit  is  of  supreme  importance  in  his  eyes,  and  that  his  grove  or  his  rock  is  as  much 
feared  by  him  as  the  pagoda  is  revered  by  the  Buddhist.  Therefore,  if  it  is  possible,  the 
felling  of  trees  in  a  sacred  grove  should  be  avoided.  But  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
cupidity  of  the  Chin  is  not  pandered  to,  as  it  is  no  sin  for  him  to  lie,  and  he  will  claim  any 
tree  in  the  forest  as  dedicated  to  or  inhabited  by  a  spirit,  if  he  wants  it  for  his  own  use" 
(Carey  and  Tuck).  From  time  to  time  a  man  sacrifices  to  his  own  private  household  spirit; 
and  when  he  does  so  he  closes  his  gate,  setting  on  it  a  green  branch  to  let  every  one  know 
that  they  must  leave  him  alone.  Sometimes  a  whole  village  will  sacrifice  to  the  village  spirit, 
and  then  the  traveller  must  seek  hospitality  elsewhere. 

On  the  original  site  of  the  Chassad  Kukis,  or  Taksatte,  as  the  Chins  call  them,  are  some 
tall  stone  pillars  still  standing.  The  natives,  when  questioned  about  these  monuments,  were 
silent;  some  said  they  did  not  know  anything  about  them.  But  some  time  afterwards  a 
friendly  Chin  came  up  and  quietly  whispered,  "Those  stones  at  Taksatte  were  set  up  by  the 
spirits;  but  do  not  tell  any  one  that  I  have  told  you  so,  as  the  spirits  would  be  avenged  on 


Photo  by 


JHAN    BEAUT 


BURMA 


117 


me  if  they  heard  that  I  have  done  so."  Near  Haka  there  is  a  grove  which  no  one  must 
injure.  A  slave  girl  once  fell  ill,  and  then  confessed  that  she  had  cut  wood  in  this  grove 
for  sale  to  the  troops;  and  although  sacrifices  were  freely  offered  up  she  died,  and  the  comment 
of  the  neighbours  was  that  "it  served  her  right." 

Omens  are  consulted  before  undertaking  a  journey,  a  feast,  a  raid,  or  a  sacrifice;  and 
the  most  trivial  things  that  may  happen  are  looked  upon  as  omens,  either  good  or  bad. 
They  generally  kill  an  animal  and  examine  its  liver.  If  the  liver  is  congested,  or  in  any 
way  different  from  what  it  ought  to  be,  they  take  the  fact  as  an  omen  that  the  time  is 
unpropitious,  and  the  enterprise  is  often  abandoned.  But  this  depends  on  the  nature  of  the 
undertaking.  If  a  raid  or  a  marriage  be  the  object  in  view,  or,  in  fact,  anything  which  they 
may  be  unwilling  to  postpone,  a  second  animal  is  killed,  and  its  liver  examined;  it  seldom 
happens  that  both  livers  give  the  same  result.  The  call  of  a  certain  bird  is  regarded  as  a 
most  favourable  omen,  and  he  who  starts  on  a  journey  proceeds  boldly  if  he  hears  it. 

The  Chins  have  a  great  belief  in  witchcraft  and  the  evil  eye.  The  tribe  known  as  Hakas 
consider  that  the  Siyins,  Yahows,  and  many  of  the  Lushais  (other  tribes)  are  wizards,  whose 
single  glance  is  quite  enough  to  bewitch  them.  To  them  such  playful  tricks  are  attributed 
as  causing  lizards  to  enter.  ^^^^^^^^^ 

the  body  or  balls  of  string 
to  form  in  the  stomach.  In 
1893,  when  a  Lushai  officer 
came  to  Haka  to  take  over 
mules,  he  was  accompanied 
by  Lushai  coolies,  who  strolled 
down  to  the  village  to  chat; 
their  approach  was  marked 
by  a  stampede  of  the  women, 
who  fled  to  the  fields  or  hid 
in  the  houses.  They  after- 
wards explained  that  the 
mere  sight  of  one  of  these 
Lushais  was  sufficient  to  cause 
sickness  and  distress.  Messrs. 
Carey  and  Tuck  say:  "Chins 
have  begged  permission  from 
us  to  shoot  individuals  who 
have  the  misfortune  to  be 
pronounced  wizards.  When 
told  that  our  customs  do  not 
admit  of  the  spilling  of  blood 
except  when  blood  has  been 
intentionally  spilled,  they 
reply  that  our  customs  are 
most  unjust  and  protect  the 
wizard,  who  is  allowed  to 
practise  his  uncanny  occupa- 
tion in  peace,  and  who  kills 
people  right  and  left,  but, 
because  he  spills  no  blood, 
we  take  no  notice." 

Virtue  in  women  is  looked 
upon  rather  as  a  "counsel 
of  perfection."  An  outraged 


Plioto  bij  Messrs.  Watts  &  Sheen] 

A   SHAN-TALOK    WOMAN. 


[Rangoon. 


n8 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


husband  can  divorce  his  wife  for  her  indiscretions;  but  if  he  does  so,  he  loses  the  price  he  paid 
for  her  to  her  brother  or  her  parents,  from  whom  he  purchased  her.  Consequently  the  affair 
is  usually  overlooked  as  regards  the  woman;  but  if  he  can  find  the  seducer,  he  will  make  him 
pay  compensation,  or  perhaps  challenge  him  to  fight.  In  this,  however,  he  seldom  succeeds, 
because  popular  opinion  is  averse  to  the  shedding  of  blood  over  the  virtue  of  women.  At  feasts, 
when  men  and  women  are  expected  to  get  drunk  and  forget  themselves,  adultery  is  considered 
no  offence  at  all,  and  they  treat  it  as  a  mistake  which  auy  one  is  liable  to  make.  However, 
this  sin  is  not  so  common  as  one  would  expect  from  the  low  moral  tone  that  prevails. 

The  belief  in  witchcraft  and  in  omens  is  general.  Surgeon-Major  Newland  narrates  that 
a  Chin  man  came  to  him  complaining  that  a  rat  had  entered  his  stomach.  He  was  given 
an  emetic,  and  in  the  morning  reported  that  he  had  vomited  up  the  rat  in  the  night;  then 
went  home  cured  and  happy. 

When  two  tribes  take  an  oath  of  friendship,  they  meet  and  produce  a  mithun,  which  is 
a  cross  between  a  cow  and  a  buffalo.  The  wise  men  of  each  village  pour  liquors  over  it,  and 
mutter  to  their  respective  spirits  to  note  the  agreement  which  is  now  to  be  made  over  the 
blood.  The  chiefs  of  either  side  each  take  a  spear,  and,  standing  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
animal,  drive  the  weapons  into  its  heart.  If  guns,  and  not  spears,  are  used,  the  two  chiefs 
simultaneously  fire  into  the  animal's  brain  or  heart.  As  the  animal  falls  its  throat  is  cut  and 
the  blood  collected  in  bowls;  the  tail  of  the  animal  is  then  cut  off  and  dipped  in  the  blood, 
and  with  it  the  chiefs  and  elders  of  the  two  parties  daub  each  other's  faces,  whilst  the  wise 
men  mutter,  "  May  the  party  who  breaks  this  agreement  die  even  as  this  animal  has  died, 
and  may  he  be  buried  outside  the  village  and  his  spirit  never  rest;  may  his  family  also 
die,  and  may  every  bad  fortune  attend  his  village!"  When  a  tribe  or  a  clan  make  formal 

submission  to  the  British  Government,  the 
ceremony  is  somewhat  modified.  The  Govern- 
ment representative  and  the  chief  simulta- 
neously shoot  the  animal;  the  tail  is  cut 
off,  and,  holding  it  in  his  hand,  the  chief 
swears  to  be  true  to  his  oath,  to  recognise 
the  Government,  never  to  cut  the  telegraph- 
wire  or  shoot  on  the  troops,  and  always  to 
pay  tribute  regularly;  and  he  calls  on  the 
spirit  to  kill  the  Government  representative 
if  he  without  cause  attacks  the  Chins,  and 
also  to  inflict  every  misfortune  on  himself 
and  his  village  if  they  break  the  oath. 
Sad  to  say,  however,  in  spite  of  this  elabo- 
rate form,  the  oath  is  of  no  value.  The 
Chin  chief  will  only  keep  it  so  long  as  he 
to  do  otherwise;  and  if  it  should 


Photo  by  Me#gis.  Watts  &  Skeen] 

KACHINS — BOY    AND    GIRL. 


[Rangoon. 


is  afraid 

suit  his  purpose,  he  will  break  his  vow.  No 
Government  servant  should  count  on  a  Chin 
keeping  his  word  because  he  has  sworn  over 
blood  to  do  so,  and  it  should  always  be  borne 
in  mind  that  a  Chin  does  not  lose  caste  in 
this  world  or  happiness  in  the  next  for  lying 
and  deceiving.  Chins  have  no  records,  so  a 
big  stone  is  set  up  to  remind  the  contracting 
parties  of  their  agreement.  To  make  an  oath 
very  binding  they  must  eat  some  earth. 

The  Karens  of  the  TenasserSm  highlands 
dwell  in  great  seclusion,  having  formerly  been 


BURMA 


119 


greatly  oppressed  by  the  Burmese,  who  con- 
quered them;  they  occasionally  visit  the  towns 
of  the  lowlands  for  purposes  of  trade.  To 
some  extent  they  appear  to  approach  the 
European  type.  They  live  in  small  settle- 
ments near  streams  in  the  woodlands,  culti- 
vating rice,  bananas,  betel-nut,  and  other 
fruits  or  vegetables,  such  as  sweet  potatoes. 
In  ordinary  circumstances  they  are  a  quiet 
and  peaceable  people;  but  one  branch  of 
them,  the  Red  Karens,  are  the  most  brutal 
savages,  committing  every  atrocity  except 
cannibalism.  The  Karen  girl's  dress  is  pretty 
and  picturesque.  The  tame  in,  or  skirt,  re- 
sembles that  worn  by  the  Burmese  girl,  but 
the  Karen  prefers  more  sober  hues.  A  dark 
cloth  sleeveless  jacket,  made  like  a  short 
skirt,  cut  in  a  low  peak  at  the  breast  and 
back,  replaces  the  Burmese  white  jacket  and 
coloured  neckerchief.  It  is  decorated  with 
scroll  designs  worked  in  coloured  threads 
banded  with  narrow  red  and  white  braids,  and 
sometimes  with  spangles  bought  in  bazaars. 
Occasionally  it  is  further  embellished  by 
narrow  ribbons,  generally  made  of  red 
flannel,  20  inches  long,  which  are  sewn  in 
pairs  under  the  armholes  and  at  the  breast 
and  back.  The  effect  is  very  pleasing  when 
worn  by  a  bright-looking  Karen  girl,  whose 
beauty,  however,  from  an  English  stand- 
point, is  doubtful. 

The  Karens  have  a  curious  way  of  cele- 
brating marriages  and  funerals  at  the  same 
time.  When  celebrating  one  of  their 
"  wakes,"  a  platform  of  bamboo  is  erected 
in  front  of  the  house  where  the  dead  man 
lived.  On  this  platform  or  stage,  barbarously 
adorned  with  pieces  of  cloth,  a  linen  sheet  is 
placed,  on  which  the  body  is  laid.  People  from  neighbouring  villages  come  in  large  numbers; 
but  although  certain  funeral  rites  are  performed,  these  they  postpone  until  the  youug  men 
and  maidens  have  done  their  courting  and  chosen  their  partners  for  life.  And  so  the  occasion 
partakes  more  of  the  nature  of  a  public  courting  than  of  a  funeral.  The  proceedings  are 
somewhat  after  this  fashion: — The  young  men  and  girls  separate  into  two  choirs,  and  seat 
themselves  on  opposite  sides  of  the  remains.  Family  jewels  are  displayed  in  great  profusion. 
The  young  men  begin  with  a  chorus  celebrating  the  beauties  of  the  Karen  maidens,  their 
charm  of  movement,  and  modest  demeanour.  To  this  the  girls  respond  in  a  falsetto  of  the 
usual  drawling  character,  accepting  the  eulogy  of  their  graces.  These  overtures  are  usually 
set  pieces  handed  down  from  antiquity,  or  rendered  into  the  Karen  tongue  from  some  popular 
Burmese  play.  Then  the  young  bachelors  begin,  each  in  turn,  and  sing  love-stricken  solos, 
calling  on  the  name  of  some  particular  damsel.  Among  an  Eastern  and  poetic  people,  a 
flowery  language  is  only  what  might  be  expected  on  such  an  occasion;  so  we  need  not  be 
surprised  to  learn  that  the  girl  is  compared  to  a  star,  a  flower,  or  a  ruby.  No  painter  could 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Watts  <&  Skeen] 

KAREN    WOMEN. 


\Rangoon. 


120 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


OUT    FOK    AN    AFTERXOOX    DRIVE. 


ly  do  justice   to  her  charms;    she   would   ruin   the  peace   of  mind   of  a  hermit!      When 
rejected,   the  suitor  becomes  plaintive — perhaps  in    the    belief  that   "pity   is  akin   to   love  "- 
saying   that   he   can   neither   eat   nor   drink,  and   will   assuredly   die   before   the   morning!      Far 
from  feeling  embarrassed,   the    Karen    maidens    appear    to    be    pleased    at  such  expressions  of 

devotion.  Their  answers  are  usually  of  a  somewhat  stereo- 
typed character.  The  girl  will  declare  that  it  is  a  shameful 
thing  not  to  be  married,  but  that  to  be  divorced  afterwards 
is  much  worse — "to  be  like  a  dress  that  has  been  washed." 
Another  will  declare  that  she  is  not  going  to  give  herself 
away  too  cheaply.  She  lets  the  suitor  know  that  she  is  not 
like  a  day  dim  with  the  heat-haze,  nor  like  a  diamond  that 
has  lost  the  foil  below  to  set  it  off,  nor  like  a  peacock's  tail 
draggled  in  the  wet.  All  this  means  that  the  wrong  man  has 
applied,  and  the  lucky  swain  will  be  a  great  fool  if  her  eyes 
do  not  let  him  know  that,  when  his  turn  comes,  the  answer 
will  be  favourable.  A  girl  seldom  says  "No"  outright;  she 
prefers  a  more  indirect  and  less  crushing  mode  of  refusal. 
But  these  cases  are  exceptional;  for,  as  a  rule,  the  girl  has 
made  up  her  mind  which  young  man  she  will  accept,  and 
the  others  will  .look  elsewhere.  The  young  people  have  met 
before,  and  so  matters  are  considerably  simplified.  When  all 

ptwto  by  \\-uhdm  ischannaitn,  Berlin.        the  courting   is    over    they  retire,   and    are    forthwith   married. 
A  PAIR  OF  DWARFS  FROM  BURMA.*    Then  the  elders  go  on  with  the  funeral  rites. 

*  The  writer  saw  these  two  little  dwarfs,  a  boy  and  girl,  of  about  eighteen  and  nineteen  years  of  age  respectively, 
and  a  little  over  three  feet  high,  at  Herr  Karl  Hagenbeck's  Indian  Exhibition  in  Berlin,  1898,  and  is  much  indebted  to 
him  for  permission  to  reproduce  the  photograph,  as  well  as  another  which  illustrates  India  in  this  book. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
CHINA    AND   MONGOLIA. 


CHINA. 

ANCIENT  writers  speak  of  the  Chinese  as  the  people  of  the  land  of  Seres.  The  country  has 
been  called  by  different  names  at  different  eras  in  the  past,  but  always  by  some  form  of  the 
name  Sin,  Sina?,  Chin,  or  China.  This  region  was  described  in  the  classic  age  of  Eome  as  a 
vast  and  populous  country,  touching  on  the  east  the  ocean  and  the  limits  of  the  habitable 
world,  a  line  beyond  which,  in  the  words  of  Cosmas,  "there  is  neither  habitation  nor 
navigation."  The  people,  imperfectly  as  they  were  then  known,  were  described  as  civilised, 
mild,  jnst,  and  frugal,  avoiding  collisions  with  their  neighbours,  and  ever  shy  of  close 
intercourse,  but  not  averse  to  dispose  of  their  own  products,  of  which  raw  silk  is  the  staple — 


Photo  by  Mr.  Afong] 


CHINESE    COOLIES   IN   RAIN-COATS. 
121 


[Hong-kong. 
16 


122 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


a  description  which,  although  too  favour- 
able, might  be  still  applied  to  them  in 
a  general  way. 

The  present  area  of  the  Chinese 
Empire  is  4,500,000  square  miles,  only 
two  other  empires,  the  British  and  the 
Eussian,  exceeding  it  in  extent.  But, 
measuring  by  population,  it  is  actually 
the  biggest  empire  on  record,  the  number 
of  people  subject  to  its  rule  being  esti- 
mated at  360,000,000,  whereas  that  of 
India  is  less  than  300,000,000.  The  area 
of  China  Proper  is  not  more  than  half  of 
the  whole  empire. 

The  early  history  of  the  Chinese  is 
singularly  obscure.  Their  own  "Book 
of  History  "  records  events  said  to  have 
occurred  so  far  back  as  2350  B.C.,  the 
period  from  which,  according  to  Con- 
fucius, the  authentic  annals  of  China 
begin.  But  it  gives  no  account  of  the 
origin  of  the  race.  A  few  learned 
Chinese  have  gone  so  far  as  to  say  that 
the  race  now  and  for  more  than  4,000 
years  dominant  in  China  is  not  the 
race  which  first  possessed  the  land.  They 
maintain  that  the  original  ancestors  of 
the  Chinese  were  the  Bak  Sing  tribes, 
and  that  they  came  into  the  country 
from  the  west,  easily  conquering  and  exterminating  the  aborigines,  and  so  becoming  undisputed 
lords  of  the  Flowery  Land.  The  Bak  Sings  were  in  a  much  more  advanced  state  of  civilisation; 
hence  their  advance  was  made  easy. 

Ethnologists  divide  mankind  into  four  great  families,  or  stocks:  the  Caucasian,  or  white; 
the  Ethiopian,  or  black;  the  Mongolian,  or  yellow;  and  the  American,  or  red.  The 
Mongolian  stock  in  the  course  of  time  became  divided  into  a  number  of  branches,  which 
spread  over  Central  and  East  Asia.  Two  of  the  great  branches  from  that  stock  are  the 
Mongolo-Tartar  and  Tibeto-Indo-Chinese,  and  it  is  with  the  latter  important  section  of  the 
Mongol  race  we  are  now  concerned.  Since  they  became  masters  of  their  vast  dominions,  they 
have  passed  through  wars  and  revolutions  which  would  almost  certainly  have  divided  such  a 
teeming  population  into  different  states  if  they  had  been  of  any  other  race.  But  the  most 
violent  convulsions  did  not  destroy  their  cohesion.  They  did  not  even  lead  to  any  change 
in  the  fundamental  principles  and  beliefs  on  which  their  social  and  political  life  was 
founded  4,000  years  ago,  and  which  continue  to  be  the  guiding  and  controlling  sources  of 
their  government  at  the  present  time.  The  strength  of  national  unity  and  the  durability 
of  national  institutions  are  the  every-day  boast  of  most  peoples;  but  on  both  points  history 
compels  us  to  award  the  highest  place  to  the  Chinese. 

The  physical  traits  of  the  average  Chinaman  may  be  described  in  a  few  words.  The  form  is 
well  built,  and,  though  rather  short  to  represent  what  we  regard  as  perfect  symmetry,  is  fairly 
proportionate.  It  is  something  between  that  of  the  lithe,  supple  Hindu  and  the  muscular,  fleshy 
European.  The  complexion  may  be  described  as  brunette,  with  a  strong  yellowish  tinge.  In 
the  south  of  China  the  people  are  darker  in  tint  than  in  the  northern  provinces,  but  their 
swarthiness  is  not  so  deep  as  that  of  the  Portuguese. 


Photo  by  M 


A    CHINESE    HAKIiEK. 


Photo  by  Mr.  Afong} 


[Hong-kong. 


A   CHINESE   LADY   OF   HIGH   RANK. 

123 


124 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


The  hair  of  the  head  is  lauk,  black,  coarse,  and  glossy;  the  beard  is  always  black,  and 
is  very  scanty;  while  whiskers  are  still  more  scanty  or  wholly  wanting.  Very  little  hair 
grows  on  the  body.  The  eyes,  distinctly  typical  features,  are  always  black,  narrow,  and 
apparently  oblique.  The  latter  appearance  is  due  to  the  very  slight  degree  in  which  the 
inner  angles  of  the  eyelids  open,  not  allowing  the  whole  iris  to  be  seen.  This  Mongolian 
peculiarity  in  the  eye  distinguishes  the  races  of  Eastern  Asia  from  all  other  races  of  mankind. 
The  cheek-bones  are  high,  and  the  outline  of  the  face  is  remarkably  round;  the  nose  is 
short,  flat,  but  wide  at  the  end;  the  lips  are  somewhat  thicker  than  those  of  Europeans; 
while  the  hands  are  small,  and  the  lower  limbs  of  average  proportions. 

The  women  in  China  are  smaller  than 
European  women;  and  even  at  the  risk  of 
being  reproached  as  ungallant,  we  must  say 
they  possess  very  little  of  the  form  and  the 
air  which  we  consider  essential  to  female 
beauty.  The  broad  upper  face,  flat  nose,  and 
narrow  eyes  are  decidedly  not  handsome, 
though  sometimes  brightened  with  good- 
humour  and  the  animation  of  youth  and 
health. 

Fashions  in  dress  among  the  Chinese 
are  not  quite  so  unalterable  as  some  other 
things.  They  change  occasionally,  as  they  do 
in  less  conservative  lands,  but  far  longer 
intervals  elapse  before  any  alteration  will  be 
admitted,  and  then  such  changes  are  not  so 
thorough  and  so  striking  as  those  so  frequently 
introduced  into  the  costume  and  ornaments  of 
our  people.  The  Chinese  dress  has  remained 
in  its  main  characteristics  the  same  for 
centuries.  Garments  of  fur  or  velvet  or  silk 
are  handed  down  from  parent  to  child  for 
two,  three,  or  more  generations,  and  no  fear 
is  entertained  that  they  will  be  condemned 
as  old-fashioned  when  seen  on  the  form  of 
some  sallow  young  lady  or  gentleman  eighty 
or  ninety  years  after  they  were  made.  The 
materials  mostly  used  in  the  making  of  clothes 
are  silk  and  cloth,  with  a  fabric  called  grass- 
cloth,  which  isynuch  worn  in  summer.  Furs 
and  skins  largely  constitute  the  winter  finery, 
woollens  being  very  sparingly  used,  and  always 
of  foreign  manufacture. 

The  costume  of  the  Chinese  is  simple, 
yet  as  fully  serviceable  as  more  elaborately 
designed  robes  could  be.  Inner  and  outer 
tunics,  made  of  cotton  or  silk,  according  to 
the  social  rank  of  the  wearer,  are  the  principal 
articles.  In  some  cases  they  are  made  to  reach 
only  below  the  loins,  but  oftener  the  outer 
tunic  goes  down  to  the  feet.  The  lapel  on  the 

Photo  by  Mr.  w.  Rau]  [Philadelphia.  right  side  folds  over  the  breast  and  fits  close 

A  CHINESE  WOMAN,  WITH  NAIL-PKOTECTOR  (ON  LEFT  HAND).      around  the  neck,  which  is  otherwise  uncovered. 


CHINA 


I25 


Photo  by  M, 


OPIUM-SMOKERS. 


[Hoitg-kong. 


The  sleeves  are  very  wide,  and  much  longer  than  the  arms.  They  have  no  cuffs,  and  in  most  cases 
sleeves  are  made  to  serve  the  purpose  of  pockets.  If  a  Chinaman  accepts  a  present,  purchases 
a  ball,  or  appropriates  any  small  article  of  value  to  which  he  has  no  just  claim — acquires 
anything  which  an  ordinary  Briton  would  deposit  in  his  pocket — the  Celestial  does  not  say  he 
'•'pockets  it,"  but  "sleeves  it,"  as  he  actually  does.  The  lower  limbs  are  not  so  fully  protected. 
A  pair  of  loose  trousers,  covered  to  the  knee  by  cloth  stockings,  is  the  usual  summer  wear. 
Tight  leggings  are  pulled  over  both  in  winter,  and  fastened  to  the  girdle  by  loops.  As  the 
trousers  are  very  loose  and  baggy  and  the  tunic  is  short,  the  excess  of  trouser  material 
forced  to  the  rear  by  the  tight  leggings  protrudes  behind  in  what  we  should  think  a  rather 
awkward  manner.  Shoes  are  made  of  silk  and  cotton,  the  soles  of  felt  being  defended  on  the 
bottom  by  hide.  Quilted  cotton  garments  are  very  common,  and  are  so  made  as  to  protect 
the  whole  person  from  cold  and  obviate  the  need  of  fires.  In  the  north  dressed  sheepskin 
robes  serve  for  bedding  as  well  as  garments,  and  their  durability  makes  them  more  desirable 
than  the  best  woven  fabrics. 

Next  to  the  oblique  eyes  the  plaited  "tail,"  or,  more  correctly,  the  queue,  is  generally 
regarded  as  the  most  distinctive  feature  of  the  Chinaman.  But  that  fashion  of  dressing  the 
hair  is  not  one  of  the  ancient  customs  of  the  Chinese,  nor  was  it  originally  practised  by  them 
for  their  own  gratification.  The  ancient  Chinese  wore  the  hair  long,  bound  upon  the  top  of 
the  head  in  a  fashion  similar  to  that  practised  by  the  Loo-choo  islanders.  They  took  pride 
ill  its  glossy  blackness,  and  had  long  distinguished  themselves  from  other  peoples  as  "the 
black-haired  race."  But  two  centuries  and  a  half  ago  the  Mauchu  Tartars  invaded  China  from 
the  north,  and  defeated  the  Chinese  in  successive  battles.  They  wore  their  hair  in  the  long 
queue  with  which  all  who  have  seen  Chinese  are  now  familiar;  and  in  1627  they  issued  an 


126 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


order  that  all  Chinese  should  adopt  their  coiffure  as  a  sign  of  allegiance  on  pain  of  death. 
As  they  overthrew  the  ruling  dynasty  at  that  time  with  ease,  and  the  chief  of  the  Manchus 
was  made  emperor,  they  enforced  the  order  with  such  merciless  rigour  that  the  Chinese 
throughout  the  land  eventually  submitted.  The  queue  was  imposed  on  the  people  as  a  badge 
of  subjection;  but  before  the  Manchu  dynasty  (the  present  rulers  of  China)  had  been  fifty 
years  established,  the  "tail"  had  become  an  appendage  of  which  the  Chinese  were  proud,  and 
a  long  thick  queue  was  an  object  of  intense  desire  to  every  honest  Chinaman. 

The  head-dress  of  married  women  is  at  once  tasteful  and  becoming.  The  plentiful  black 
hair  is  bound  upon  the  head  in  an  oval  knot,  which  is  secured  in  its  place  by  a  pin  placed 
lengthwise  in  it,  and  fastened  by  a  shorter  pin  thrust  across  and  under  the  bow.  In  front  of 
the  knot  a  tube  is  often  worn,  in  which  flowers  can  be  placed.  A  widow  is  known  by  white 
flowers  in  her  hair,  a  maiden  by  one  or  two  plaits  instead  of  a  knot;  but  in  some  parts  white 
flowers  are  worn  by  all  women.  Matrons  wear  an  embroidered  fillet  on  the  forehead,  about 
an  inch  wide,  pointed  between  the  eyebrows,  and  covering  the  front  of  the  hair.  This  fillet, 
embroidered  or  adorned  with  pearls,  is  a  favourite  ornament  with  Chinese  ladies.  Along  the 
Yang-tse-kiang  River  women  wear  a  band  of  fur  around  the  head.  The  hair  of  children  is 
unbound;  but  girls  advancing  in  age  allow  the  side-locks  to  grow  until  the  hair  reaches  the 
waist,  and  plait  a  tress  down  the  neck.  False  hair  is  made  use  of  by  men  and  women,  the 
men  particularly  being  fond  of  making  their  queues  as  long  as  possible. 

The  population  of  China  as  we  know  it  is  the  result  of  a  fusion  of  tribes  of  connected 
lineage.  Different  classes  from  beyond  the  bounds  -of  China  Proper,  as  the  Mongolo-Tartars 

under  Genghis  Khan  and 
his  successor,  and  the 
Mauchu  Tartars  under 
Tsen-uing,  at  different 
periods  assumed  the  mastery 
of  the  settled  inhabitants. 
But  the  Chinese  were  only 
governed  and  plundered  by 
their  new  masters,  not 
destroyed.  They  invariably 
absorbed  into  their  own 
nation  intrusive  neighbours 
whom  they  were  unable  to 
expel,  for  common  sense 
and  practicality  are  strongly 
developed  traits  in  the 
character  of  the  people. 
The  Chinaman  thinks 
nothing  is  worthy  of  serious 
regard  but  that  which  is 
visibly  useful  or  materially 
beneficial.  His  arts  and 
sciences,  his  poems  and 
romances,  his  religions 
and  philosophies,  all  re- 
volve around  and  minister 
to  the  needs  and  pleasures 
of  his  daily  life.  Abstract 
virtue,  the  universal,  the 
ideal,  are  terms  which 
A  CHINESE  WOMAN  WITH  DEFORMED  FOOT.  have  hardly  the  shadow  of 


[Hong-kong. 


128 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Photo  bij  Mr.  Afoixj 


[Hong-kong. 


A  CHINESE  GARDEN  PARTY. 


a  meaning  to  him.  Such  an  action  as  a  missionary  voluntarily  incurring  hardship  and  danger 
in  the  attempt  to  secure  eternal  felicity  for  men  who  have  never  done  him  service,  and  from 
whom  he  cannot  expect  any  compensating  good,  he  can  understand  only  as  the  result  of  a 
wofully  deranged  mind.  He  is  not  endowed  with  much  imagination,  or  it  may  be  that 
centuries  of  rigorous  training  within  strictly  material  lines  have  practically  clogged  that  mental 
faculty,  until  it  has  become  so  torpid  that  it  cannot  become  active  under  normal  conditions. 
The  Mongol  character,  in  Mr.  Keane's  estimation,  is  sluggish,  with  little  initiative,  but  great 
endurance;  frugal,  thrifty,  and  industrious;  morality  low;  science  slightly,  art  and  letters 
moderately  developed. 

Men  who  possess  little  initiative — that  is,  little  of  the  bold,  originative  power  which 
constitutes  genius — are  naturally  largely  imitative,  and  still  more  markedly  tenacious  of  that 
which  they  have  tried  and  approved.  They  will  expend  immense  energy  on  the  elaboration 
of  a  work  they  have  begun,-  but  the  mind  shrinks  from  the  attempt  to  conceive  a  new 
task  involving  different  principles  and  possessing  a  totally  different  character.  On  a  given 
solid  base  the  Chinese  will  produce  astonishing  results,  giving  proof  of  tireless  industry, 
ingenuity,  and  perseverance.  This  fondness  for  elaboration  of  detail  is  displayed  in  nearly 
every  act  of  his  ordinary  life,  and  gives  rise  to  the  many  ceremonies  which  the  Chinaman— 
a  very  ceremonious  creature — daily  practises.  "Ceremony  is  the  type  of  virtue,"  said  Confucius 
about  2,400  years  ago;  and  the  Chinese  have  not  failed  to  preserve  the  axiom  of  the  great 
teacher. 

The  form  of  government  in  China  is  decidedly  patriarchal.  The  State  is  embodied  in  the 
Emperor,  who  assumes  towards  his  subjects  at  large  the  office  of  guide  and  guardian,  which 


CHINA 


129 


the  head  of  a  family  should  hold  with  relation  to  the  minor  and  dependent  members  of  the 
same.  His  title,  Tien-Tsze,  proclaims  him  "the  Son  of  Heaven,"  and  the  people  he  governs 
are  supposed  to  be  his  children.  Standing  in  this  intermediary  position,  he,,  and  he  alone,  has 
power  to  mediate  between  his  father,  Heaven,  and  his  children,  his  subjects.  His  sacrifices 
and  prayers  in  discharging  the  duties  pertaining  to  this  high  office  are  conducted  with  great 
parade  .and  ceremony;  and  the  pomp,  it  need  hardly  be  said,  tends  to  impress  upon  the  people 
a  sense  of  the  greatness  and  dignity  of  their  chief,  who  is  able  thus  to  commune  on  their 
behalf  with  the  Everlasting  and  Almighty. 

But  the  power  wielded  by  the  Emperor  is  still  circumscribed  by  certain  laws  and 
hampered  by  precedents.  From  the  day  on 
which  he  ascends  the  throne,  special  duties 
are  appointed  by  the  Board  of  Eites  to 
nearly  every  hour  of  his  daily  life.  In  all 
offices  of  State  the  Emperor  is  assisted  by 
the  Nuy-Ko,  or  Privy  Council.  The  provinces 
are  mainly  self-governed.  Each  province  (in 
a  few  cases,  two  conjointly)  is  presided  over 
by  a  Viceroy,  who  is  supreme  within  his 
jurisdiction,  and  who  has,  in  cases  of 
emergency,  the  power  of  life  and  death  in 
his  hands.  Next  to  him  comes  the  Governor, 
whose  authority  in  all  matters  relating  to 
the  province  is  second  only  to  that  of  the 
Viceroy.  Each  province  is  divided  into 
several  departments,  and  each  department  or 
district  has  to  maintain  its  own  staff  of 
officials.  There  are  prefectures  and  sub- 
prefectures,  prefects  and  sub-prefects.  The 
smallest  of  these  divisions  is  again  sub- 
divided into  districts,  over  each  of  which 
is  placed  a  magistrate,  and  subordinate  to 
the  magistrate  are  a  host  of  petty  officials, 
each  and  all  of  whom  have  to  be  maintained 
and  enriched  at  the  cost  of  the  people 
whose  affairs  they  administer. 

Every  occupant  of  office  must  be  a 
mandarin.  Mandarins  of  all  classes  are 
divided  into  nine  ranks,  each  distinguished 
by  the  button  or  buttons  worn  on  the  top 
of  the  cap.  These  buttons  are  the  insignia 
of  rank.  The  first  and  highest  is  a  plain 
red  button;  the  second,  a  flowered  red 
button;  third,  a  transparent  blue  button; 
fourth,  an  opaque  blue  button;  fifth,  an  un- 
coloured  glass  button;  sixth,  a  white  glass 
button;  seventh,  a  plain  gilt  button;  eighth, 
a  gilt  button  with  flowers  in  relief;  and 
ninth,  a  gilt  button  with  engraved  flowers. 
Theoretically,  the  system  of  government 
practised  in  the  provinces  is  nearly  all  that 
can  be  desired;  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
it  is  as  corrupt  as  any  system  regulating 


Photo  by  Mr.  W.  Rau] 

A   WOMAN   OF   MANCHURIA. 


[Philadelphia. 


130 


CHINA 


intercourse  between  different  classes  of  men  could  be.  The  mandarins  are  blamed  for  nearly 
all  the  iniquity  attaching  to  the  system;  arid  though  it  is  beyond  denial  that  they  are  as 
powerful  and  rapacious  as  they  are  numerous,  there  is  yet  a  word  to  be  said  in  extenuation  of 
their  conduct.  The  salaries  they  receive  when  in  office — and  when  they  are  regularly  paid, 
which  is  seldom  the  case — are  so  trifling  that  they  hardly  suffice  to  maintain  the  staff  which 
it  is  necessary  for  each  mandarin  in  office  to  keep.  The  mandarin  thinks  it  is  a  sacred  duty 
to  himself  to  remedy  that  state  of  things  at  the  cost  of  the  people.  This  becomes  a  more 
imperative  duty  because  there  is  a  law  which  forbids  that  any  mandarin  shall  hold  office  for 
more  than  three  years.  The  instant  he  arrives  at  his  post  all  the  subordinate  officials  hasten 
to  pay  their  respects  to  him.  Not  one  of  them  would  dare  absent  himself,  and  each  vies 
with  his  colleague  in  procuring  a  present  of  the  utmost  value  he  can  afford  to  give  to  the 
mandarin  as  a  proof  of  his  loyalty  and  devotion.  Then,  again,  when  a  suitor  comes  with  a 
legal  cause  to  the  yamen,  or  mandarin's  office,  he  is  obliged  to  pay  fees  to  the  mandarin  and 
all  the  subordinate  officials,  or  he  would  have  but  small  chance  of  securing  a  hearing. 

The  shocking  corruption  which  is  audaciously  and  flagrantly  practised  in  open  day  in  high 
places  has  a  most  demoralising  effect  upon  the  people.  Dishonesty  is  hardly  regarded  as  a 
vice;  ib  is  practised  every  day  and  everywhere,  the  only  deterrent  being  the  fear  of  discovery 
and  punishment.  False-speaking  is  as  prevalent  as  dishonest  dealing.  The  Chinese  set  little 
or  no  value  upon  truth.  It  has  been  said  that  the  Chinaman  may  sometimes  speak  the  truth 
by  accident.  The  makers  of  the  fatherly  laws  which  the  mandarins  administer,  and  the 
mandarins  themselves,  apparently  have  knowledge  of  the  rarity  of  such  accidents,  and  therefore, 
to  have  more  on  their  side  than  the  chance  of  accident  when  trying  to  elicit  truth  in  their 
courts  of  justice,  they  employ  torture. 

Flogging  is  the  kind  most  commonly  inflicted  to  bring  home  to  the  mind  of  a  prevaricating 


Photo  by  Mr.  Afony] 


CHINESE  TAKING   TEA. 


132 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


witness  the  necessity  for  speaking  the 
truth.  Shocking  as  the  application  of 
the  lash  is  thought  to  be  in  England, 
the  Chinese  method  of  flogging  is  more 
painful,  if  not  more  debasing.  The 
witness  is  laid  flat  on  his  face,  and 
the  executioner  delivers  his  blows  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  thighs  with  the 
concave  side  of  a  split  bamboo.  When 
the  strokes  are  heavy,  the  flesh  rises  in 
ridges  in  the  hollow  part  of  the  cane, 
and  the  sharp  edges  cut  the  victim 
terribly.  This  punishment  is  not  limited 
to  a  fixed  number  of  blows.  The  sufferer 
may  release  himself  by  giving  the 
evidence  required,  or  the  flogging  is 
continued  until  he  becomes  insensible. 
Many  other  kinds  of  torture  are  resorted 
to.  The  Chinese  display  a  horrible  inge- 
nuity in  producing  the  greatest  possible 
suffering  with  the  most  apparently  simple 
means. 

For  example,  one  of  the  ordinary 
punishments  in  China  is  compulsory 
kneeling,  bare-legged,  on  a  coiled  chain. 
This  does  not  sound  shocking,  and  it 
might  be  supposed  that  it  could  hardly 
inconvenience  people  so  little  sensible  to 
pain  as  the  hardier  Chinese  are  known 
to  be.  But  the  agony  that  is  caused 
by  this  punishment  is  indescribable, 
especially  as  two  officers  stand  by  the 
sufferer  to  prevent  him  from  seeking 
even  a  momentary  relief  by  changing 
his  position.  Broken  crockery  is  some- 
times substituted  for  the  chain,  but  those  who  have  experienced  the  punishment  find  one 
material  as  cruel  as  the  other. 

A  common  punishment  in  China  is  that  of  the  cangue,  a  sort  of  movable  pillory.  It  is 
a  collar  formed  of  a  piece  of  wood,  four  feet  square  and  nearly  four  inches  in  thickness.  It  has 
a  hole  formed  in  the  middle,  through  which  the  culprit's  head  is  passed.  The  machine  opens 
with  a  hinge.  When  closed  around  the  culprit's  neck,  it  is  locked,  and  a  placard,  describing 
the  offence  for  which  he  suffers,  is  always  pasted  on  it.  As  long  as  the  cangue  is  worn  the 
delinquent  cannot  feed  himself,  so  that  he  would  soon  expiate  his  offences  by  death  from 
starvation  if  he  were  not  kept  alive  by  occasional  scraps  tendered  by  good-natured  people. 
Indeed,  little  risk  of  actual  starvation  is  run,  for  it  is  popularly  thought  a  becoming  and 
meritorious  action  to  feed  a  prisoner  in  the  cangue.  The  principal  terror  of  this  instrument  is 
the  pain  caused  by  continuously  carrying  so  much  dead  weight  upon  the  neck  and  shoulders. 

There  is  another  mode  of  punishment  in  which  the  cangue  is  used,  but  in  this  case  the 
collar  is  fixed  and  does  not  rest  on  the  shoulders.  A  tall  cage  is  constructed,  the  top  of 
which  is  flat  and  thick,  with  a  hole  in  the  centre,  through  which  a  man's  head  may  be 
thrust.  The  top  of  the  cage  is  so  adjusted  in  height  from  the  bottom  that  the  sufferer  is 
forced  to  stand  on  tiptoe  to  avoid  supporting  the  weight  of  his  body  by  his  jaws,  under 


Photo  by  Mr.  Afong] 

A   CHINESE   NURSE   AND    CHILD. 


[Hong-kong. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


which  the  board  passes.  His  hands  being  bound  behind  him,  he  cannot  relieve  himself  for 
a  moment.  Iron  snakes  are  another  form  of  torture;  they  are  tubes  of  soft  metal,  fashioned 
in  the  form  of  snakes  with  open  mouths.  The  sufferer  is  stripped  naked  and  forced  to 
a  kneeling  position,  with  his  arms  extended  straight  out  on  each  side.  One  of  the  metal 
snakes  is  then  coiled  round  each  arm  from  the  wrist  to  the  shoulder,  the  mouth  or  orifice  of 
the  tube  appearing  at  the  latter  end.  Another  tube  is  coiled  round  the  body,  with  the  mouth 
at  the  back  of  the  neck.  Boiling  water  is  then  poured  into  the  snakes  until  they  are  filled, 
and  the  burning  torture  thus  inflicted  can  hardly  be  imagined. 

Finger-squeezing  is  a  torture  also  frequently  used.  Four  pieces  of  bamboo  are  tied  loosely 
together  at  one  end,  and  a  string  passes  through  the  other  ends,  so  arranged  that,  by  pulling 
the  string  with  some  force,  the  pieces  of  cane  can  be  drawn  closely  together.  The  fingers 
are  placed  between  the  pieces  of  bamboo,  and  the  executioner,  by  pulling  on  the  string  with 

gradually  increasing  force,  can  inflict  excru- 
ciating torment,  and  even  break  the  bones 
of  the  fingers  to  pieces.  This  torture  is  often 
employed  by  the  mandarins  when  trying  to 
force  money  from  persons  whom  they  suspect 
of  having  concealed  wealth  somewhere.  The 
ankles  are  squeezed  in  a  similar  manner,  only 
that  the  implement  of  torture  is  necessarily 
much  larger. 

Capital  punishment  is  inflicted  in  several 
ways.  The  mode  that  is  thought  to  be  least 
terrible  is  to  be  accorded  permission  to 
commit  suicide.  This  is  a  privilege  granted 
only  to  men  of  very  high  rank,  and  is  con- 
ferred upon  them  by  sending  "  the  silken 
cord."  When  the  mandate  is  received  which 
intimates  to  the  offender  that  he  may  use 
the  silken  cord,  the  doomed  man  takes  some 
of  his  relatives  and  nearest  friends  to  his 
house,  fastens  the  silken  cord  to  a  beam, 
stands  upon  a  stool,  places  the  noose  round 
his  neck,  then  leaps  off  the  stool,  and  so 
hangs  himself.  For  criminals  of  no  particular 
social  standing  strangulation  is  the  mode  of 
execution  generally  practised.  It  is  inflicted 
in  a  manner  closely  resembling  the  garrote. 
The  criminal  is  placed,  standing,  with  his 
back  to  a  post,  through  which  a  hole  is 
bored  at  the  level  of  his  neck.  The  two 
ends  of  a  cord  are  passed  through  the  hole, 
and  the  loop  embraces  the  man's  neck.  The 
ends  are  then  twisted  round  a  stick,  and  by 
a  few  rapid  turns  the  loop  is  so  tightened 
that  strangulation  is  almost  instantaneous. 
Beheading  is  another  way  in  which  criminals 
are  executed,  but  to  this  death  the  Chinese 
have  the  strongest  objection.  They  believe 
that  the  spirits  of  the  dead  appear  in  the 

Photo*, XT.  Afong\  [Hong-kong.         next  world   minus  any  members  which   their 

A  WOMAN  OF  SHANGHAI.  bodies  may  have    lacked  when    they  died  in 


CHINA 


'35 


this,  and  they  shrink  with  a  horror  which  it  is  hard  for  us  to  conceive  from  appearing 
hereafter  as  armless,  legless,  or,  above  all,  as  headless  ghosts. 

The  mode  of  execution  requires  a  few  words.  The  criminal  is  carried  to  the  place  of 
execution  in  a  bamboo  cage,  and  by  his  side  is  a  basket  in  which  his  head  will  be  removed. 
He  is  effectively  pinioned.  The  middle  of  a  long,  thin  rope  is  passed  round  the  back  of  his 
neck,  and  the  ends  are  crossed  on  the  chest  and  brought  under  the  arms.  They  are  then 
twisted  round  the  arms,  the  wrists  tied  together  behind  the  back,  and  the  ends  fastened  to 
the  portion  of  rope  upon  the  neck.  A  slip  of  paper,  containing  the  culprit's  name,  crime,  and 
sentence,  is  fixed  to  a  reed  and  stuck  at  the  back  of  his  head.  On  arriving  at  the  place  of 
execution,  the  officials  remove  the  paper  and  take  it  to  the  presiding  mandarin,  who  writes  on  it 
in  red  ink  the  warrant  for  execution.  The  paper  is  then  replaced,  a  rope  loop  is  passed  over 
the  head  of  the  culprit,  and  the  end  given  to  an  assistant,  who  draws  the  head  forward  so  as 
to  stretch  the  neck,  while  a  second  assistant  holds  the  body  from  behind.  In  a  moment  the 
executioner  wields  his  broad,  heavy  sword,  sweeps  it  down  in  one  deadly,  unerring  stroke,  and 
the  head  is  removed  from  the  body.  It  is  taken  away,  and  generally  hung  up  in  a  bamboo 
cage  near  the  scene  of  the  crime  for  which  the  death-penalty  was  inflicted,  with  a  label 
announcing  the  name  and  offence  of  the  criminal,  and  also  the  name  of  the  presiding  mandarin 
by  whose  order  he  was  executed. 

A  Chinese  wife  is  extremely  anxious  to  present  her  husband  with  sons,  who  will  perpetuate 
his  name  and  burn  incense  before  his  tablet  after  death.  Female  children  are  of  so  little 
account  that  when  a  baby-girl  is  born  it  is  often  made  away  with.  A  childless  woman 
sometimes,  however,  adopts  a  girl  from  another  family,  believing  that  this  course  will  make 


Photo  by  Mr.  Afonff] 


[Hong-kong. 


A   CHINESE   FAMILY   GROUP    OF   THREE    GENERATIONS. 


136 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


her  in  time  a  happy  mother. 
The  idea  is  based  on  a 
strange  superstition,  or  rather 
on  a  curious  and  interesting 
conception  of  the  relation 
between  the  spirit-world  and 
the  earthly  life.  The  train  of 
thought  is  explained  thus: — 
The  woman  is  represented  by 
a  tree  in  the  unseen  world. 
Whether  she  will  have  children 
or  not,  and  Avhat  their  number 
and  sex  will  be,  is  indicated 
by  the  condition  of  the  tree, — 
whether  it  has  flowers  or  not; 
and  if  it  has  flowers,  what  is 
their  number  and  colour.  If 
the  tree  has  red  flowers,  she 
will  have  girls;  if  white 
flowers,  she  will  have  boys. 
If  the  flowers  be  of  different 
colours,  some  white  and  some 
red,  she  will  have  boys  and 
girls;  if  no  flowers  at  all, 
the  poor  woman  will  be 
childless.  But  as  in  this 
world  men  graft  on  one  tree 
a  shoot  from  another,  and 
thus  have  the  desired  fruit,  so  the  Chinese  adopt  a  child  into  a  childless  family,  in  the  hope 
that  there  will  be  flowers  on  the  flowerless  tree  in  the  spirit-land  that  represents  the  barren 
wife.  This  custom  is  consequently  known  as  "grafting." 

There  is  a  goddess  of  children,  commonly  called  "  Mother."  Every  year,  between  the  llth 
and  15th  of  the  first  and  of  the  eighth  months,  several  of  the  most  popular  temples  of  this 
goddess  are  visited  by  childless  women,  who  burn  incense  and  candles  before  her  image,  vowing 
to  offer  a  thanksgiving  if  the  goddess  will  grant  their  desire. 

As  the  time  approaches  for  a  woman  to  give  birth  to  a  child,  a  custom  is  observed  in 
somo  families  for  the  purpose  of  propitiating  two  female  demons  believed  to  be  present  with 
the  intention  of  .killing  the  woman.  A  table  is  spread  with  plates  of  food,  incense,  flowers, 
and  false  money.  A  priest  makes  suitable  recitations.  At  the  end  of  this  ceremony  various 
evil  spirits  are  invited  to  come"  and  receive  the  worship  of  the  woman  and  her  husband. 
When  a  woman  suffers  much  pain  in  child-birth,  or  if  the  child  be  not  born  after  long 
waiting,  and  her  life  appears  to  be  in  danger,  friends  or  relations  produce  a  kind  of  puppet- 
show,  in  which  is  a  puppet  representing  "Mother."  These  puppets  are  made  to  dance  near 
the  door  of  the  sick-room;  in  some  cases  the  particular  puppet  of  the  goddess  is  made  to 
walk  and  dance  on  the  body  of  the  woman  herself.  This  treatment  is  supposed  to  relieve 
pain  and  hasten  the  birth. 

In  China  three  different  religions  are  upheld  and  favoured  by  those  in  authority;  these 
are  Confucianism,  Taoism,  and  Buddhism.  But  besides  these  religious  systems  there  is  the 
worship  of  ancestors,  which  plays  so  important  a  part  in  the  life  of  the  people,  from  the 
highest  to  the  lowest.  Two  features  distinguish  Chinese  religions  from  those  of  other 
countries.  In  the  first  place,  there  are  no  human  sacrifices;  and,  secondly,  vice  is  not 
personified  or  deified.  No  Aphrodite  or  Venus  is  found  in  the  list  of  goddesses,  and  it  cannot 


Photo  by  Mr.  Afong] 


[HoiKj-kong. 


A    CHINESE    FORTUNE-TELLER. 


CHINA 


be  said  that  the  Chinese  have  endeavoured  to  lead  the  votaries  of  sensuality  farther  on  the 
road  to  ruin  by  putting  immorality  under  the  protection  of  a  god  or  goddess.  It  may  also 
be  remarked  that  it  is  no  easy  matter  for  Europeans  to  understand  the  Chinese  religion. 
The  people  appear  to  entertain  such  indefinite  ideas  on  the  real  character  of  their  ceremonies, 
and  to  hold  such  varied  opinions  on  religious  matters,  that  the  inquirer  finds  it  difficult  to 
obtain  clear  and  consistent  accounts  on  this  subject. 

Confucianism  would  be  more  accurately  described  as  a  system  of  moral  philosophy  than 
as  a  religion.  But  the  belief  in  a  Supreme  Power  always  underlies  its  teachings,  though  it 
is  not  so  pointedly  and  persistently  expressed  as  in  other  systems.  The  State  worship  of 
"Heaven,"  or  "God,"  was,  and  still  is,  confined  to  the  Emperor  in  his  double  capacity  of 
father  and  priest  of  the  people.  It  is  held  that  the  will  of  God  is  to  be  learned  from  the 
moral  principles  of  man's  nature.  Government  is  ordained  by  God  for  the  good  of  the  people; 
and  when  the  sovereign  ceases  to  promote  the  popular  good,  his  government  is  antagonistic 
to  the  divine  ordinance,  and  therefore  he  has  forfeited  his  right  to  the  throne.  Thus  it  is 
that  revolutions  and  changes  of  dynasty  are  always  referred  to  as  "the  will  of  Heaven." 
Associated  with  the  worship  of  Heaven  was  the  worship  of  heaven  and  earth  and  the  powers 
of  nature,  but  they  were  always  regarded  as  subordinate  to  God,  and  fulfilling  His  will  for  the 
good  of  men.  Both  Emperor  and  people  worship  their  ancestors.  This  worship  is  universally 
practised  in  China.  It  is  a  perpetuation  of  "  the  duty  which  every  one  owes  to  his  parents — 
the  first  and  chief  of  all  virtues."  On  this  Confucius  laid  the  greatest  stress,  endeavouring 
to  derive  all  other  virtues  from  it. 

Taoism  derives  its  name  from  a  treatise  composed  by  Lao-Tsze,  a  contemporary  of 
Confucius.  It  is  called  "The  Tao,"  or  "The  Way  and  its  characteristics."  The  "Way"  is  the 


Photo  by  Mr.  Afong] 


CHINESE   MANDARINS,    CANTON. 


i38 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


quiet,  passionless  discharge  of  all  which  our  nature  prompts  and  our  relations  require  us 
to  do,  without  violent  striving  or  crying,  while  steadily  maintaining  and  preserving  life. 
"Heaven"  in  this  "Way"  is  not  a  ruler  or  legislator,  as  in  Confucianism,  but  only  a  pattern. 
The  system  was  older  than  Lao-Tsze,  who,  however,  reduced  it  to  method.  The  recognised 
head  of  Taoism  has  his  seat  on  the  Lung-hu  Mountain  in  Chiang-hsi.  To  Lao-Tsze  belongs 
the  merit  of  having  formulated  the  grand  principle  that  good  will  overcome  evil,  and  should 
be  returned  for  it. 

The  form  of  Buddhism  prevailing  in  China  is  called  Shamanism,  or  Hwang  Kiao 
(Yellow  Sect)  in  Chinese,  from  the  colour  of  the  priestly  robes.  A  Shaman  is  one  who 
has  overcome  all  his  passions.  The  Dalai  Lama  at  Lassa,  in  the  great  monastery  of  the 
Putala,  is  the  head  of  the  religion,  the  abode  of  deity.  Mongolia  swarms  with  Lamas;  and 
the  Government  at  Pekin,  in  order  to  maintain  its  influence,  aids  in  supporting  them.  The 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Watts  &  Skeen] 


CHINESE   HUSBAND   AND    WIFE. 


[Rangoon. 


ritual  of  the  Shamans  contains  their  ten  principal  precepts  or  commandments:  "(1)  Do  not 
kill;  (2)  Do  not  steal;  (3)  Do  not  commit  fornication;  (4)  Speak  not  falsely;  (5)  Drink  no 
wine  nor  eat  flesh;  (6)  Look  not  on  gay  silks  or  necklaces,  use  no  perfumed  ointment, 
and  paint  not  the  body;  (7)  Neither  sing  nor  dance,  and  do  no  sleight-of-hand  tricks  nor 
gymnastic  acts,  and  go  not  to  see  or  hear  them;  (8)  Sit  not  on  a  high,  large  couch;  (9)  Do 
not  eat  out  of  time;  (10)  Do  not  grasp  hold  of  living  images,  gold,  silver,  money,  or  any 
valuable  thing." 

The  general  character  of  the  Chinese  is  irreligious;  they  care  much  more  for  worldly 
gam  than  for  religious  ceremonies  of  any  kind.  Except  those  attaching  to  ancestor  worship, 
they  have  no  ceremonies  they  consider  so  binding  as  to  be  willing  to  fight  for  their  preserva- 
tion. These  are  of  so  domestic  a  nature  that  thousands  of  converts  might  discard  them 
before  much  would  be  known  or  done  by  the  people  in  connection  with  the  matter.  The 
toleration  of  the  Christian  religion  has  been  allowed  throughout  the  empire  by  imperial  edicts 


140 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


issued  by  Shun-chi  and  his'  son,  but  these  have  not  prevented  the  persecution  and  even  massacre 
of  missionaries.  In  1844  the  French  envoy  brought  the  disabilities  of  Christians  in  China  to 
the  notice  of  Ki-ying,  who  memorialised  the  throne,  and  received  a  rescript  which  reversed  the 
bloody  decrees  of  1722  and  later  years.  Churches  have  increased  since  the  first  one  was 
formed  in  Canton,  and  some  of  them  are  now  served  by  native  evangelists.  The  future  is 
not  without  promise. 


MONGOLIA. 

THE  primeval  home  of  the  Mongols  is  the  region  known  as  Mongolia,  where  every  mountain 
is  a  king  and  every  lake  or  stream  a  national  divinity.  This  region,  over  which  China 
nominally  rules,  stretches  from  Siberia  in  the  north  towards  the  Great  Wall  of  China  in  the 
south,  and  from  Manchuria  in  the  east  to  the  Altai  Mountains,  the  Thian-shan  (i.e.  Heaven 
Mountains),  and  East  Turkestan  in  the  west.  The  Desert  of  Gobi  is  in  its  centre  (see  map 
on  page  130).  The  total  number  of  Mongols  under  Chinese  rule  is  estimated  at  2,000,000. 

The  meaning  of  the  name 
Mongol  is  said  to  be  "brave," 
and  to  have  been  given  to  the 
people  on  account  of  their  war- 
like character.  Once  they  were 
the  terror  of  the  world.  In  the 
year  1236  they  invaded  Georgia 
and  Great  Armenia,  committing 
frightful  atrocities,  sparing 
neither  man  nor  woman,  young 
nor  old.  Tiflis  was  among  the 
cities  captured  by  assault,  and 
Kars  was  surrendered  at  their 
approach  in  the  vain  hope  that 
submission  would  gain  clemency. 
Meanwhile,  in  1235,  Ogdai,  their 
chief  khan,  whose  troops  were  as 
numerous  as  their  thirst  for 
conquest  was  devouring,  dis- 
patched three  armies  in  as  many 
directions.  One  was  directed 
against  Korea;  one  against  the 
Sung  dynasty,  which  ruled  over 
the  provinces  of  China  south  of 
the  Yang-tse-kiang;  and  the 
third  was  sent  westwards  into 
Europe.  This  last  took  the 
capital  city  of  the  Bulgars,  and 
pushed  on  over  the  Volga  Eiver. 
With  irresistible  vigour  and 
astonishing  speed  the  Mongols 
made  their  way  through  the 
forests  of  Penza  and  appeared 
before  the  beautiful  city  of 
Eiazan.  For  five  days  they  dis- 
charged a  ceaseless  storm  of  shot 
WITH  VEIL  OF  BEADS.  from  their  ballistas,  and  carried 


Photo  by  Mr.  Thos.  Child] 

A   CHINESE    BRIDE, 


\_Chelsfield. 


MONGOLIA 


the  city  after  making  a  breach.  The 
prince,  with  his  mother,  wife,  sons,  the 
boyars  (nobles),  and  the  inhabitants 
were  slaughtered  with  savage  cruelty. 
Some  were  impaled,  some  shot  at  with 
arrows  for  sport;  others  were  flayed 
alive.  Priests  were  roasted,  and  nuns 
and  maidens  ravished  in  the  churches. 
"  No  eye  remained  open  to  weep  for  the 
dead."  Next,  Moscow  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  invaders,  who  then  advanced 
against  Vladimir.  After  holding  out 
for  several  days  the  city  succumbed,  and 
the  horrors  of  Eiazan  were  repeated. 
The  imperial  family,  with  a  vast  crowd 
of  fugitives,  sought  shelter  in  the 
cathedral,  only  to  perish  by  the  swords 
of  the  conquerors  or  by  the  flames 
which  reduced  the  building  to  ashes. 
An  even  worse  fate  overtook  the  in- 
habitants of  Kozelsk,  near  Kaluga,  where 
the  Mongols  held  so  terrible  a  "carnival 
of  death  "  that  the  city  was  called  "  the 
city  of  woe."  Krief  was  also  captured, 
with  the  inevitable  massacre.  Having 
desolated  this  portion  of  Eussia,  they 
invaded  both  Hungary  and  Poland. 
They  even  conquered  China,  but  did  not 
stay  there  long.  Brave  and  hardy  as 
the  Mongols  have  always  shown  them- 
selves to  be,  they  could  not  gain  the 
allegiance  of  those  whom  they  con- 
quered, nor  establish  settled  forms  of  government.  For  a  time  their  prowess  and  the  ability 
of  some  of  their  first  emperors  held  China  in  bondage;  but  at  last  the  long  pent-up  hatred  of 
a  foreign  yoke  broke  out,  and  the  invaders  were  driven  back  to  their  old  home  in  Mongolia. 
This  took  place  in  the  fourteenth  century  of  our  era. 

Since  the  last  century  the  Mongols  have  ceased  to  be  of  any  political  importance.  During 
centuries  of  migration  and  fighting  they  have  mingled  with  other  races,  such  as  the  Chinese, 
Turki,  Tibetans,  and  the  non- Mongolian  Iranians.  The  whole  Mongol  tribe  is  usually  divided 
into  three  branches — East  Mongols,  West  Mongols,  and  Buriats.  Captain  Younghusband 
noticed  a  distinct  difference  between  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Mongols,  the  features  of 
the  former  being  rounder  and  fuller  than  those  of  the  Western  Mongols. 

The  writer  is  greatly  indebted  to  Mr.  E.  Delmar  Morgan,  F.E.G.S.,  for  his  kindness  in 
allowing  him  to  reproduce  here  some  of  the  excellent  photographs  taken  for  him  during  his 
travels  in  Eastern  Turkestan.  The  originals  are  in  the  possession  of  the  Eoyal  Geographical 
Society,  the  Council  of  which  also  kindly  gave  their  permission.  Others  of  Mr.  Morgan's 
photographs  appear  in  Chapter  X. 

The  Mongol  countenance  is  an  exaggeration  of  the  Chinese  type:  the  face  is  flat  and 
broad,  the  nose  low,  and  the  eyes  are  oblique.  Living  most  of  their  lives  on  horseback,  the 
Mongols  have  short  legs  and  small  feet;  the  calves  are  undeveloped,  and  the  knees  bent  out. 
The  famous  Venetian  traveller  Marco  Polo,  who  visited  them  in  the  thirteenth  century,  thus 
describes  their  habits,  in  words  which  are  equally  true  even  now:  "The  Tartars  never  remain 


By  permission  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 

A   FAMILY   GROUP   OF   MONGOLS,    KULDJA. 


142 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


fixed,  but  as  the  winter  approaches  remove  to  the  plains  of  a  warmer  region  iii  order  to  find 
sufficient  pasture  for  their  cattle;  and  in  summer  they  frequent  cold  situations  in  the 
mountains,  where  there  are  water  and  verdure,  and  their  cattle  are  free  from  the 
annoyance  of  horse-flies  and  other  biting  insects.  During  two  or  three  months  they 
progressively  ascend  higher  ground  and  seek  fresh  pastures,  the  grass  not  being  adequate  in 
one  place  to  feed  the  multitude  of  which  their  flocks  and  herds  consist.  Their  huts  or  tents 
are  formed  of  rods  covered  with  felt;  and  being  exactly  round  if  nicely  put  together,  they  can 
gather  them  into  one  bundle,  and  make  them  up  as  packages  [a  process  which  the  present 
writer  witnessed  in  Berlin  at  the  interesting  Exhibition  of  Kirghese  by  Herr  Gebrink  at 
the  Flora  Garten,  Charlottenberg],  which  they  carry  along  with  them  in  their  migrations 
upon  a  sort  of  car  with  four  wheels.  When  they  have  occasion  to  set  up  these  again,  they 
always  make  the  entrance  front  to  the  south.  Besides  these  cars  they  have  a  superior  kind  of 
vehicle  upon  two  wheels,  covered  likewise  with  felt,  and  so  effectually  as  to  protect  those 
within  it  from  wet  during  a  whole  day  of  rain.  They  are  drawn  by  oxen  and  camels,  and 
serve  to  convey  their  wives  and  children,  their  utensils,  and  such  provisions  as  they  require. 
The  women  attend  to  their  trading  concerns,  buy  and  sell,  and  provide  everything  necessary 
for  their  husbands  and  their  families,  the  time  of  the  men  being  entirely  devoted  to  the 
employment  of  hunting  and  hawking,  and  matters  that  relate  to  military  life.  They  have  the 
best  falcons  in  the  world,  and  also  the  best  dogs.  They  subsist  entirely  upon  flesh  and  milk, 
eating  the  produce  of.  their  sport,  and  certain  small  animals  not  unlike  rabbits,  called  by  our 


By  permission  of  the  JRoyal  Geographical  Hod 


A   GROUP   OF   MONGOLS. 


144 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


people  '  Pharaoh's  mice,'  which  during  the  summer  season  are  found  in  great  abundance  on 
the  plains.  But  they  likewise  eat  flesh  of  every  description — horses,  camels,  and  even  dogs — 
provided  they  are  fat.  They  drink  mare's  milk,  which  they  prepare  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
has  the  qualities  and  flavour  of  white  wine."  This  is  the  well-known  koumiss. 

The  Mongolian  is  robust,  and  capable  of  enduring  great  hardships.  He  can  ride  a  camel  for 
fifteen  hours  at  a  stretch  with  the  thermometer  down  at  15°  below  zero  (Fahrenheit).  But  he 
does  not  like  walking,  and  is  nearly  always  mounted.  After  200  years  of  Chinese  government 
the  race  has  greatly  degenerated,  even  losing  to  a  great  extent  the  personal  courage  which 
gave  them  the  power  of  making  rapid  conquests  over  other  peoples.  Like  their  ancestors,  they 
are  still  nomads,  and  their  wealth  consists  of  flocks  of  sheep,  herds  of  horses  (small,  but  very 
enduring),  cattle,  camels,  and  goats.  As  a  rule  they  are ,  hospitable,  though  indifferent  to 
personal  comfort,  addicted  to  cattle-stealing  and  to  drink,  but  when  sober  good-hearted  and 
friendly.  Tents  are  their  only  protection  against  the  violent  sandstorms  of  summer,  and  the 
yet  more  terrible  snowstorms  of  winter.  Frequent  pilgrimages  are  made  to  Urga,  the  religious 
capital  of  the  country,  and  to  various  other  Mongolian  and  Chinese  shrines.  They  are  very 
dirty  people,  never  washing  their  bodies,  and  very  seldom  their  faces  and  hands.  Lamaism,  a 
form  of  Buddhism,  has  taken  a  strong  hold  upon  them,  and  superstitions  are  very  prevalent. 


By  permission  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 

KHAN  WANG,  A  MONGOL  OF  KULDJA. 


CHAPTER    VII. 
JAPAN,  THE  HAIRY  AINU,  KOREA,  FORMOSA,  LIU-KIU  ISLANDS,  AND  TIBET. 


JAPAN. 

THE  Japanese  people  live  in  what  has  been  aptly  described  as  an  empire  of  islands.  Their 
own  native  name  Nippon  signifies  "Land  of  the  Kising  Sun."  They  sometimes  speak  of  it  as 
Great  Nippon,  just  as  we  ourselves  speak  of  Great  Britain.  Geographically  their  country  has 
a  very  strong  analogy  to  ours  in  its  proximity  to  a  vast  continent,  in  latitude,  and  in  having 
its  shores  washed  by  a  great  ocean  current  of  warm  water  from  the  tropics.  The  area  of 
the  country  has  been  estimated  at  155,000  square  miles,  which  is  34,000  square  miles  larger 
than  the  United  Kingdom.  But  besides  the  four  large  islands  of  Yezo,  Hondo,  Shikoku, 
and  Kiusiu,  to  which  the  above  figures  refer,  there  are  in  the  Mikado's'  dominion  about  4,000 
small  islands,  among  which  are  the  Loo-choo  and  the  Kurile  Islands,  not  to  mention  the 
large  island  of  Formosa  taken  from  China  in  1895.  The  census  taken  in  1891  showed  a 
population  of  40,719,000. 

The  fact  that  several  different  races  are  blended  and  combined  in  the  Japanese  type  of 
to-day  may  be  reasonably  explained  by  the  geographical  situation  of  the  country.  It  is 
connected  with  the  Malay  Archipelago  by  groups  of  islands.  From  the  Peninsula  of  Korea,  on 
the  mainland  of  Asia,  it  is  separated  only  by  a  narrow  strait.  With  Kamschatka  it  is  more  or 
less  connected  by  a  chain  of  islands,  and  by  another  chain  it  is  similarly  connected  with  the 
North  American  Continent.  Here  we  have  at  least  four  routes  by  which  Japan  has  always  been 
accessible  with  the  most  primitive 
means  of  transport.  Mixed  though 
they  are,  the  Japanese  have  not 
often  been  conquered.  Their  neigh- 
bours, the  Chinese,  have  made  several 
attempts  to  subdue  them  and  annex 
their  beautiful  archipelago,  but  always 
met  with  signal  defeat.  The  Japanese 
became  skilful  and  daring  navigators. 
With  Arabs  they  may  have  made 
voyages  even  as  far  as  India.  Their 
junks  have  undoubtedly  sailed  to  the 
coasts  of  Central  America,  and  as 
freebooters  they  Avere  once  the  terror 
of  the  people  on  the  Chinese  coast. 

The  Japanese,  like  ancient 
peoples  Avith  hardly  an  exception, 
have  an  accepted  account  not  only 
of  their  origin  as  a  distinct  race, 
but  of  the  creation  of  the  island 

realms  destined    for   their  habitation          photo  by  Messrs.  Kajima  A-  suwo. 
and  heritage.      They  say  that,  when  THREE  JAPANESE  GIRLS. 

145 


146 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


the  world  was  being  formed,  and  the  earth  was  still  soft  like  mud,  or  like  thick  oil  floating  on 
the  surface  of  water,  there  arose  out  of  the  mass  the  flag  or  rush  called  asi  (Erianthus 
japonicus],  from  which  there  sprang  the  land-forming  god,  Kuni-soko-tatsino-mikoto.  After 
him  arose  the  god  and  goddess  whose  functions  are  the  baking  of  mud-earth  and  the  baking 
of  sand-earth.  As  the  asi  grows  thickly  in  marshy  places  round  the  Japanese  coast,  we  have 
here  stated  the  geological  process  of  the  formation  of  new  ground.  One  of  the  next  proceedings 
was  the  special  production  of  the  Japanese  islands  by  the  god  Iza-na-gi,  and  the  goddess 
Iza-na-mi.  They  stood  on  the  heaven-bridge  and  dipped  a  spear  in  the  muddy  waters. 
Then  they  raised  the  spear,  and  each  drop  that  fell  from  it  formed  an  island.  Then  followed 
the  loves  of  this  divine  pair,  who  descended  on  Dai  Nippon,  the  larger  island,  which,  indeed, 
may  be  regarded  as  the  mainland  of  Japan.  They  met  near  the  stalk  of  the  asi,  from  which 
the  land-forming  god  had  sprung,  and  which  had  now  grown  into  a  tall  imperial  column. 


A    JAPANESE    VEGETABLE-PEDLAR. 


They  regarded  each  other  with  looks  of  admiration.  But,  unhappily,  the  goddess  was  not  free 
from  all  the  human  weaknesses  of  her  sex,  for  she  spoke  first,  and  from  that  fact  only  a 
presage  of  evil  could  be  drawn.  The  first  child  born  to  them  was  set  adrift  in  an  ark  of 
reeds,  but  survived  many  perils  and  became  the  progenitor  of  an  illustrious  race. 

The  physical  characteristics  of  the  Japanese  type  are  a  flat  forehead  with  more  than  the 
usual  distance  between  the  eyebrows,  a  small  but  well-formed  nose,  slightly  raised  nostrils,  and 
small  black  eyes,  rather  less  oblique  than  the  Chinese,  lank  black  hair,  little  or  no  beard, 
short  legs  and  low  stature,  the  average  being  about  5  feet  4  inches.  The  complexion  is  sallow, 
or  dirty  olive-yellow.  "It  is  curious,"  says  Dr.  W.  H.  Guillemard,  "how  the  face-complexion 
of  these  people  differs  from  the  body-complexion.  In  the  course  of  two  visits  to  Japan,  in 
which  I  travelled  much  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  I  saw  many  hundreds  of  naked 
Japanese,  the  bathing  of  both  sexes  in  company  being  at  that  time  the  rule,  and  I  was  struck 
particularly  with  the  fact  that,  in  spite  of  their  sallow  or  yellowish  complexion,  their  bodies 


JAPAN 


were  Avhiter  than  those  of  Englishmen,  or  even  Englishwomen.     The  Chinaman,  however,  strips 
yellowish." 

The  mental  endowments  of  a  people  can  seldom  be  correctly  inferred  from  a  view  of  their 
physical  qualities.  This  truth  is  forcibly  illustrated  in  the  Japanese  race,  who  appear  but  a 
feeble  folk  when  compared  with  the  average  Chinese  and  with  the  Koreans,  who  are  more 
closely  related  to  them.  They  possess  very  considerable  powers  of  endurance,  but  are  physically 
weak,  with  only  slight  muscular  development  and  narrow  chests.  Nevertheless,  they  stand 
intellectually  at  the  head  of  all  the  peoples  of  Mongol  stock.  In  recent  years  the  Japanese  have 
shown  that,  in  this  respect,  they  can  claim  to  rank  with  the  more  advanced  European  nations, 
being  highly  intelligent,  progressive,  quick-witted,  and  brave  to  a  degree  of  heroism  unsur- 
passed by  any  other  people.  "  The  sense  of  personal  honour,  so  feebly  developed  among  other 
Asiatics,  became  a  passion  under  the  medieval  feudal  system,  and  led  to  astounding  acts  of 




Taken  during  the  Scientific  Expedition  ofH.M.S.  ''•Challenger"  1872-70.  Published  by  Horsburgh  & 

THE   JAPANESE   MODE    OF   CONVEYANCE. 


Government  Copyright. 


devotion  and  self-sacrifice,  as  well  as  to  deeds  of  incredible  ferocity,  of  almost  daily  occurrence. 
With  much  enterprise  and  originality  is  combined  an  imitative  faculty  surpassing  even  that 
of  the  Chinese,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  their  first  steamer  with  engines  complete  was 
constructed  solely  from  the  directions  given  in  a  Dutch  treatise  on  the  subject.  These  varied 
mental  qualities  explain  the  rapidity  with  which  the  Japanese — the  barriers  of  exclusion  once 
broken  down — have  taken  their  place  in  the  comity  of  the  Western  nations"  (Keane).  It  is 
strange  that  the  Koreans,  to  whom  they  are  so  nearly  related,  should  have  failed  to  rise  to 
the  same  height  of  intellectual  culture.  But  by  no  means  are  all  the  Japanese  educated, 
many  of  those  living  away  from  the  towns  being  in  a  very  low  state  of  culture. 

The  Japanese  commence  their  authentic  history  about  the  same  time  as  that  of  Ancient 
Rome  began,  namely  660  B.C.  The  first  Emperor,  or  Mikado,  established  something  like 
systematic  government  in  the  vicinity  of  Kioto,  not  far  from  the  modern  port  Osaka.  For 
centuries  their  histories  speak  of  efforts  to  subdue  the  wild  intractable  aborigines  (Hairy  Ainu), 


148 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


who  obstinately  clung  to  their  independence,  and  who,  in  the  second  century  of  our  era>  were 
driven  beyond  Yokohama,  and  subsequently  to  the  north  island  of  Yezo,  where  they  still 
exist,  only  nominally  subject  to  their  conquerors.  These  highly  interesting  aborigines,  of 
Caucasian  origin,  will  be  described  further  on  (see  page  152). 

The  Japanese  of  all  classes  are  highly  courteous  and  obliging.  Personally  brave,  and 
proud  of  the  great  deeds  performed  by  their  forefathers,  they  are  altogether  a  warlike  nation, 
distinguished  beyond  others  for  their  contempt  of  death  and  by  an  almost  morbid  sense  of 
personal  honour.  The  latter  sentiment  leads  to  frequent  duelling  and  to  quarrels  between 
individuals  and  families,  which  are  maintained  with  a  persistency  and  pitiless  rancour  that 
remind  one  of  the  Corsican  vendetta.  This  dark  side  of  their  character  is  not,  however, 
apparent  to  ordinary  observers.  Their  restless  activity  and  good-humour  are  the  traits  most 
constantly  displayed,  and  are  illustrated  by  the  amusements  which  they  pursue  with  uncommon 
zest.  The  natives  seem  to  be  almost  frivolous  in  their  freedom  from  care.  But  they  are  always 
polite,  and  this  is  as  true  of  the  sturdy  porter  who  carries  your  baggage,  and  the  man  who 
draws  you  through  the  streets  in  the  jinriksha,  as  of  the  pretty  waitress  who  supplies  you 
with  the  universal  beverage  in  the  tea-house.  Even  the  beggars — and  they  are  many — excite 
interest  by  their  professional  buffoonery. 

In  every  Japanese  city  a  large  space  is  set  apart  for  amusements  and  called  the  josliiwara. 
There  may  always  be  found  performing  in  the  streets  troupes  of  clever  acrobats,  jugglers, 
clowns,  and  strolling  players.  The  many  theatres  may  be  visited  for  a  trifling  fee,  and  in 
these  establishments  the  audience  remains  squatted  in  family  groups  for  hours.  Wrestling 
is  even  more  popular  than  the  drama,  often  exciting  enthusiasm  as  frantic  as  that  which 
Spaniards  exhibit  at  a  bull-fight.  Another  very  favourite  form  of  amusement  is  the  flying 
of  kites,  and  it  is  no  uncommon  sight  to  see  quite  old  people  amusing  themselves  in  this 
manner.  On  the  whole,  the  Japanese  must  be  described  as  a  gay,  pleasure-seeking  people. 
They  devote  the  whole  evening  to  some  kind  of  relaxation,  which  is  always  preceded 

by     the     cleansing      and     refreshing 
bath. 

The  rapidity  with  which  the 
Japanese  adopt  European  customs  is 
strikingly  illustrated  in  their  dress. 
This  is  more  particularly  true  of 
Tokio,  Yokohama,  and  other  populous 
cities  where  Europeans  reside  longest 
and  in  greatest  number,  though  it 
applies  chiefly  to  the  wealthier  and 
the  more  cultivated  classes.  The  real 
charm  of  Japanese  life,  so  different 
from  that  of  other  lands,  is  not 
to  be  found  in  its  Europeanised 
circles,  but  among  the  great  mass 
of  the  people.  It  is  they  who  repre- 
sent in  Japan,  as  in  all  countries,  the 
national  character,  national  virtues, 
and  national  vices,  and  who  cling  to 
their  old  customs,  their  Buddhist 
images,  their  household  shrines,  their 
fervent  worship  of  ancestors,  and  their 
queer,  if  rather  picturesque,  style  of 
dress. 

Photo  by  Messrs.  Kajima  &  Suwo.  Notwithstanding  the  intellectually 

TWO  FAIR  DAUGHTERS  OF  JAPAN.  emancipating  effect   of  the  revolution 


AN  ELABORATELY  TATTOOED  JAPANESE  MAN. 


150 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


of  1868,  which  abolished  feudalism  and  restored  the  Mikado  to  his  position  of  almost  divine 
power  and  authority,  and  notwithstanding  the  wide  adoption  of  Western  notions  since  the 
opening  of  the  country  to  foreign  merchants,  missionaries,  and  tourists  at  that  date,  the  Japan 
of  to-day  remains  decidedly  Japanese.  The  coolies  do  not  wear  "bowler"  hats,  even  though 
there  is  an  apparent  inclination  among  the  humbler  Japs  to  combine  the  Englishman's  hat 
and  boots  with  a  Japanese  costume. 

To  the  stranger  in  Japan  who  may  be  making  his  first  excursion  through  the  city  in  a 
rattling  jinriksha,  everything  appears  quaint,  elfish,  and  pantomime-like.  Everything  as  well 
as  everybody  is  small,  quaint,  and  mysterious.  Some  shade  of  blue  predominates.  The 
houses  are  crowned  with  blue  roofs;  the  little  shop-fronts  are  hung  with  blue,  and  the  smiling 
little  people  have  more  dark  blue  in  their  costume  than  any  other  colour.  A  first  glance 
down  one  of  the  queer  streets  you  pass  creates  only  an  odd  confusion  as  you  look  through  a 
seemingly  endless  flutter  of  flags  and  swaying  of  dark-blue  tapestry,  all  made  more  strange 
(though  certainly  relieved  and  it  may  be  beautified)  by  the  Japanese  or  Chinese  lettering 
which  appears  on  them.  There  is  no  regularity  of  plan — at  least,  none  which  the  stranger  can 
immediately  discern.  Nothing  is  exactly  like  anything  else.  The  shops  are  all  low  and  light, 
with  their  first  storeys  open  to  the  street.  Above  each  shop-front  a  thin  strip  of  roofing  slopes 
back  to  the  miniature  balcony  of  the  paper-screened  second  storey.  The  floors  of  the  tiny 
shops  are  well  raised  above  the  level  of  the  street,  and  they  are  covered  with  matting.  The 
dark-blue  blouses  of  the  labouring  people  are  adorned  on  the  back  with  the  same  curious 
lettering  which  appears  on  the  shop  draperies.  As  the  letters  appear  on  the  back  of  a 
workman's  frock — pure  white  or  dark  blue — large  enough  to  be  easily  read  at  a  great  distance, 
they  give  to  the  poor  cheap  garment  an  appearance  of  distinction  and  value  which  it  is 
not  possible  to  estimate  correctly  at  first.  The  letters  are  the  wearer's  trade-mark — they 
make  known  the  name  of  some  guild  or  company  of  which  he  is  a  member,  or  by  which 
he  is  employed. 

Children  are  everywhere.  In  the  quieter  thoroughfares  you  may  see  rows  and  processions 
of  girls,  carrying  funny -looking  little  Jap  babies  in  hoods  on  their  backs.  One  cannot  be 
quite  sure  whether  the  carriers  are  the  sisters  or  the  mothers  of  their  burdens,  for  Japanese 
girls  marry  and  become  mothers  very  early. 

The  women  are  fond  of  dress.  All  who  can 
afford  it  have  the  hitomo,  or  under-garment  of  silk, 
which  is  generally  of  a  bright  colour.  Over  it, 
according  to  the  season  and  the  occasion,  are  worn 
two  or  three  and  sometimes  as  many  as  five  or 
six  flowing  robes — called  kimono — which  fall  down 
over  the  feet.  These  are  mainly  of  silk  or  crape, 
those  underneath  of  a  light,  the  others  of  a  dark 
colour,  generally  blue.  All  are  girdled  round  the 
waist  by  the  obi,  6  or  8  feet  long,  and  a  foot  wide, 
which  is  generally  of  satin  or  some  Leavy  silk 
material.  The  ends  of  this  girdle  are  tied  into  a 
large  square  bow  behind.  The  feet  are  protected  by 
high  clogs  of  elm-wood  or  straw  sandals,  according 
to  the  weather.  Tattooing,  introduced  less  than  three 
hundred  years  ago,  was  once  very  common,  but  is 
now  chiefly  practised  by  men  of  the  lower  class. 
Umbrellas  and  fans  are  used  by  both  sexes;  but  the 
men,  during  the  past  thirty  years,  have  largely 
imitated  the  European  style  of  dress. 

Photo  by  jfo*r..  Kujima  A  nuwo.  li  maY  be  «»d   of  the   Japanese,  with  far  more 

AN  ELABORATE  JAPANESE  HEAD-DRESS.  truth  than  it  has  been  said  of  the  Chinese,  that  they 


JAPAN 


are  a  nation  of  artists. 
A  striking  character- 
istic of  their  art  is 
that  they  display  it 
largely  in  articles  of 
practical  utility. 
There  are  no  more 
industrious  people  on 
the  earth .  Having 
no  Sabbath,  they  take 
a  holiday  only  when 
there  is  nothing  to 
do.  Their  spade  in- 
dustry turns  the 
country  into  a  vast 
beautifully  kept 
garden,  in  which  one 
might  almost  look  in 
vain  for  a  weed.  The 
Japanese  turn  every- 
thing to  useful 
account;  in  their 
application  of  the 
commoner  and  ap- 
parently often  worth- 
less materials  artistic- 
feeling  is  exercised, 
together  with  thrift 
and  practical  common 
sense.  "  Viewed  in 
this  light,"  says  Sir 
Rutherford  Alcock, 
"  it  is  not  too  much  to 

say  that  no  nation  in  ancient  or  modern  times  has  been  richer  in  art  motifs  and  original 
types  than  the  Japanese."  Art  in  Japan  is  not,  as  in  Europe,  the  grafting  of  some  style  upon 
another,  and  the  accumulated  knowledge  of  all  the  various  schools  since  remote  antiquity.  It 
has  been  a  growth  unaffected  by  outside  influences,  and  is  self-contained,  self-sustaining,  and 
strictly  national.  If  we  compare  the  decorative  art  of  Japan  with  that  of  China,  we  see  how 
far  the  Japanese  have  left  their  former  masters  behind,  and  how  thoroughly  they  have  produced 
a  school  of  art  peculiarly  their  own.  Mr.  Cutler  has  well  said:  "If  we  study  the  decorative 
art  of  the  Japanese,  we  find  the  essential  elements  of  beauty  in  design,  fitness  for  the  purpose 
which  the  object  is  intended  to  fulfil,  good  Avorkmanship  and  constructive  soundness,  which 
give  value  to  the  commonest  article,  and  some  touch  of  ornament  by  a  skilful  hand, 
together  creating  a  true  work  of  art." 

Pictorial  art  as  understood  in  Europe  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  any  existence  in  Japan, 
whose  art  is  essentially  decorative,  most  of  the  designs  consisting  of  natural  objects  treated 
in  a  conventional  way.  The  flowers  may  not  be  rigidly  correct  botanically,  and  the  birds 
may  not  be  absolutely  without  blemish  in  the  eyes  of  an  ornithologist,  but  they  show  a 
truth  to  nature  which  declares  that  every  blade  of  grass,  each  leaf  and  feather  depicted,  has 
been  the  object  of  loving  and  most  patient  study. 

In  their  methods  of  ornamentation  the  Japanese,  like  the  Chinese,  treat  every  object  flatly. 
It  is  not  a  picture  that  they  produce,  but  a  decoration  full  of  extraordinary  beauty.  The 


PROFESSIONAL   JAPANESE    WRESTLERS. 


152 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Plioto  bij  Messrs.  Kajima  &  Suwo. 


A    VILLAGE    SCENE    IN    JAPAN. 


delicacy  of  touch  is  everywhere  seen.  The 
artist  specially  excels  in  conveying  an  idea 
of  motion  in  the  swift  flight  of  birds  and 
the  gliding  movement  of  fishes,  and  that  is 
one  of  the  most  difficult  triumphs  of  art. 
The  Japanese  may  be  styled  the  Raphaels 
of  fishes,  and  insects,  and  flowers,  and  bamboo 
stems  swaying  in  the  wind;  but  they  have 
never  succeeded  in  adequately  transferring 
to  canvas  "the  human  form  divine";  they 
have  never,  like  the  early  Italian  masters, 
drawn  away  men's  hearts  from  earth  to 
heaven  in  an  ecstasy  of  adoration.  As  has 
been  tersely  said  by  Mr.  Alfred  East,  in  a 
lecture  on  the  subject,  "Japanese  art  is  great 
in  small  things,  but  small  in  great  things." 
No  people  display  greater  indifference 
to  religion  and  religious  teaching  than  the 
Japanese.  The  accepted  religions  are  two — 
a  much  corrupted  form  of  Buddhism  and 
Shintoism.  The  latter  belief  was  professed 
by  the  Japanese  long  before  Buddhism  and 
the  year  552  of  our  era.  It  has  emerged 
doctrines  were  taught,  its  votaries  again 


Confucianism  were  introduced  from  Korea — about 
from  an  eclipse  which  it  suffered  when  the  newer 
number  many  millions,  and  it  is  practically  the  national  religion,  if  that  epithet  can  be  applied 
to  any  of  the  several  doctrines  at  present  freely  taught  and  professed  in  the  country.  Shinto 
means  literally  "  the  way  of  the  gods."  Though  called  a  religion,  it  is  really  no  more 
than  a  system  of  moral  philosophy.  Motoori,  a  high  Japanese  authority  on  Shinto,  points  out 
that  it  does  not  contain  any  strictly  formulated  moral  precepts,  which  are  unnecessary,  as  the 
Japanese  must  act  aright  if  he  consults  his  own  heart.  He  asserts  that  the  whole  duty  of  a 
good  Japanese  consists  in  obeying  implicitly  and  without  question  the  commands  of  the  Mikado. 
According  to  Shinto  doctrine,  Japan  is  the  country  of  the  gods,  and  the  Mikado  the  direct 
descendant  and  representative  of  the  Sun-goddess.  It  teaches  a  species  of  hero-worship,  and  it 
strongly  inculcates  reverence  for  the  dead..  By  it,  too,  spiritual  agencies  are  attributed  to  the 
elements  or  natural  phenomena.  The  Shinto  shrines  throughout  the  country  are  built  in  very 
simple  style,  and  before  each  shrine  stand  one  or  more  torii — archways  formed  of  two  upright 
posts  with  a  projecting  cross-bar  laid  on  their  tops,  and  beneath  that  a  smaller  horizontal  beam, 
the  ends  of  which  do  not  project.  The  most  marked  distinction  between  pure  Shinto  shrines 
and  Buddhist  temples  is  the  absence  from  the  former  of  images  exposed  for  the  veneration 
of  the  worshipper;  but  at  the  same  time  the  Shinto  shrine  always  contains  some  object  in 
which  the  spirit  of  the  deity  therein  enshrined  is  supposed  to  reside.  The  principal  Shinto 
shrines  are  maintained  by  Government.  Buddhism,  once  everywhere  prevalent  in  Japan,  has 
been  virtually  disestablished  since  1874.  Since  the  country  was  opened  to  foreigners,  various 
Christian  missions  have  been  established.  Their  principal  seats  are  Tokio  and  Yokohama. 
Churches  have  been  built,  and  schools  opened  for  the  children.  The  number  of  native  converts 
is  constantly  but  slowly  increasing,  for  the  Japanese  mind  has  not  yet  been  thoroughly  aroused 
from  its  materialism  and  the  apathy  or  dislike  with  which  it  regards  things  spiritual. 


THE   HAIRY   AIXU. 

THE  wild  hairy  aborigines  of  Japan  referred  to  on  page  147  have  attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention. 
They  have  been  fully  described  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Savage  Landor  and  other  travellers  who  use  the 


THE    HAIRY    AINU 


pencil  as  freely  as  the  pen.  Although  now  confined  to  Yezo,  part  of  Saghalin,  and  the 
southern  members  of  the  Kurile  Islands,  their  territory  appears  to  have  formerly  comprised 
a  great  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  Japan.  In  the  national  traditions  there  was  a  time  when 
they  could  look  out  on  their  watery  domain  and  exclaim,  "  Gods  of  the  sea,  open  your  divine 
eyes.  Wherever  your  eyes  turn,  there  echoes  the  sound  of  the  Ainu  speech."  The  full-blooded 
and  half-caste  survivors  of  this  remote  Asiatic  branch  of  the  Caucasian  race  scarcely  number 
20,000.  They  are  not  Mongolian,  as  some  writers  have  attempted  to  prove;  but  their  low 
stature,  and  the  skulls  of  all  shapes  (long,  round,  and  intermediate),  seem  to  show  that  they 
have  to  some  extent  mingled  with  the  surrounding  Mongolian  peoples. 

The  features  are  not  regular  in  the  European  sense;  yet  the  faces  are  often  handsome, 
with  large,  slightly  curved  noses,  clear  brown  or  greenish  eyes  set  straight  in  the  head,  and 
olive-brown  or  fair  complexions.  Miss  Bird  (Mrs.  Bishop),  in  the  account  of  her  travels  in 
"  Unbeaten  Tracks  in  Japan,"  says  that  the  Ainu  possess  many  excellent  qualities,  and  take 
advantage  of  such  opportunities  as  they  can  find  to  better  themselves.  She  describes  them  as 
being  "  about  the  middle  height,  broad-chested,  broad-shouldered,  very  strongly  built,  the  arms 
and  legs  short  and  muscular,  the  hands  and  feet  large.  The  bodies  of  many  are  covered  with 
short  bristly  hair.  I  have  seen  two  boys,"  she  says,  "whose  backs  are  covered  with  fur  as 
fine  and  soft  as  that  of  a  cat.  The  foreheads  are  very  high,  broad,  and  prominent,  and  at 
first  sight  give  one  the  impression  of  an  unusual  capacity  for  intellectual  development.  The 
nose  is  straight  but  short,  the  cheek-bones  low,  the  eyebrows  full,  forming  a  straight  line 
nearly  across  the  face.  The  eyes  are  large,  tolerably  deep-set,  and  very  beautiful,  the  colour 
a  rich  liquid  brown,  the  expression  singularly  soft,  the  skin  of  an  Italian  olive  tint,  and  light 
enough  to  show  the  changes  of  colour  in  the  cheeks."  The  people  pride  themselves  above  all 
things  on  their  hairiness,  and  their  name 
in  the  language  of  the  people  signifies 
"  Hairy  Men." 

Probably  the  first  thing  that  strikes 
the  visitor  to  Yezo  is  the  odour  of  dried 
fish  which  prevails  everywhere,  and  tells  of 
the  principal  industry.  Other  smells  abound 
too,  for  the  Ainu  are  a  very  dirty  people. 
The  huts  are  small,  with  hardly  any  furniture 
or  bedding.  It  is  easy  for  the  stranger  to 
gain  admission,  for  the  Ainu  are  a  hospitable 
race.  Having  entered,  he  sees  that  there 
is  only  one  small  window,  not  large  enough 
to  light  the  interior,  and  the  many  smells 
are  most  disagreeable.  In  the  dimness  he 
will  perhaps  see  an  old  man.  perfectly 
naked,  with  a  fine  head,  long  white  hair 
and  beard,  sitting  on  the  ground  among  a 
mass  of  seaweed,  which  he  is  disentangling 
as  fast  as  he  can,  arranging  it  in  something 
like  order.  A  couple  of  young  men  and 
a  couple  of  young  women,  with  bright, 
intelligent  eyes,  and  high  cheek-bones,  are 
assisting  in  the  work.  In  their  quiet,  gentle 
way  they  all  bring  their  hands  together,  rub 
the  palms,  and,  lifting  their  arms,  slowly 
stroke  their  hair.  The  men  stroke  the 

beard  also  with  the  backs   of  their  hands,          phutu  bi  Vftwjt  Ka.ima  &  S.MWO 
while  the  women  draw  the  first  finger  under  A  DAUGHTER  OP  JAPAN. 


154 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


the  nose  from  the  left  to  the  right.      This  is  their   salutation  to  the  stranger,  and,   odd  as  it 
is,  it  is  not  ungraceful. 

Men  and  women  wear  large  earrings  or  pieces  of  red  or  black  cloth,  which  add  to  their 
picturesque  ness,  but  the  women  are  nearly  all  disfigured  by  a  long  moustache  tattooed  across 
the  face  from  ear  to  ear.  Rough  drawings  adorn  the  arms  and  hands  of  the  women,  who  on 
the  whole  possess  comely  features,  though  they  look,  notwithstanding  the  gentleness  of  their 
manner,  as  if  they  could  be  very  passionate.  A  traveller  says  of  a  little  girl,  about  ten  years 
old,  whom  he  saw  in  one  of  the  seaside  villages,  that  her  large  eyes,  tanned  complexion, 
white  teeth,  the  tiny  bluish-black  tattoo  on  her  upper  lip,  her  uncombed  long  black  hair 
flying  around  her,  and  her  red  cloth  earrings,  made  her  as  quaint  a  study  of  colour  and 
vitality  as  an  artist  could  desire. 

A  large  number  of  the  Ainu  have  settled  in  a  line  of  little  villages  on  the  banks  of  the 
Saru  River,  and  of  these  villages  Piratori,  situated  about  fifteen  miles  from  the  sea,  is 
the  largest.  Near  the  huts  in  which  the  people  live  may  be  seen  a  number  of  tent-like 
constructions  of  bamboo  and  matting,  which  are  built  on  the  top  of  posts  or  piles,  and  are 
raised  6  or  8  feet  above  the  ground.  These  stilted  houses  are  the  store-rooms,  and  are  raised 
so  high  to  protect  their  contents  from  the  ravages  of  wild  animals  and  the  destruction  that 
would  be  caused  by  the  floods  that  frequently  cover  the  land.  The  chief's  house  is  larger 
than  the  other  huts.  On  state  occasions  he  wears  a  crown  made  of  shavings  and  seaweed, 
having  in  front  a  small  bear's  head  roughly  carved  in  wood.  This  he  solemnly  places  on  his 
head,  after  which  his  better-half  assists  him  to  put  on  his  -imi,  or  regal  garments,  and  then 
hands  him  a  large  sword,  which  also  is  part  of  his  regalia.  The  garments  are  made  of  strips 
of  red,  white,  and  blue  cloth  sewn  together.  The  materials  are  Japanese,  but  there  is  nothing 
Japanese  in  the  shape  of  the  garments  which  have  been  cut,  arranged,  and  sewn  by  the  Ainu, 
and  are  thoroughly  Ainu  in  fashion,  and  therefore  in  ordinary  English  absolutely  indescribable. 
Even  when  royally  arrayed  the  chief's  person  will  be  found  much  in  need  of  an  application  of 
soap  and  water — a  fact  which,  an  enthusiastic  artist  might  say,  adds  to  rather  than  detracts 
from  the  picturesqueness  of  his  appearance.* 

The  Ainu  have  very  few  public  festivals,  and  none  that  depend  upon  the  seasons,  but  it  is 
on  such  occasions  that  the  girls  (manokoft)  may  be  seen  at  their  best.  They  nearly  all  dress 

in  long  yellowish  gowns,  descending 
nearly  to  the  feet,  with  rough  white 
and  red  ornamentations  on  a  patch 
of  blue  cloth  on  their  backs.  In  a 
kind  of  savage  dance  called  the 
lapkara  they  arrange  themselves  in 
a  circle,  and  sometimes  a  child  or 
two  children  are  placed  in  the  centre. 
The  dance  or  game  consists  in  hopping 
round  and  round  in  a  ring,  while 
calling  out  either  the  name  or  making 
some  sound  characteristic  of  their 
usual  occupation,  and  clapping  the 
hands  so  as  to  keep  time.  The  dance 
is  in  some  parts  somewhat  like  our 
Sir  Roger  de  Coverley,  and  though 
in  a  barbarous  form  is  hardly  less 
pretty. 

t,,j  .!/,*«,*.  A'niima  ,t-  SUM.  Tne  wal  iri  which  the  Ainu  fish 

A  JAPANESE  DOCTOR  AND  PATIENT.  for    salmon     in    the     Otsu     River    is 

*  The  writer  is  indebted  to  Messrs.  Kajima  &  Suwo,  of  London   and  Japan,  for  the  valuable  photographs  of  Ainu, 
taken  by  them,  which  illustrate  pages  156-160. 


THE    HAIRY     AINU 


primitive  but  interesting,  and  often  exciting.  A  party  of  travellers,  not  far  from  the  river  banks, 
were  attracted  by  shouts  and  cries  of  excitement  on  the  river.  They  hurried  to  the  bank 
to  learn  the  cause.  Two  native  "dug-outs"  were  coming  swiftly  down  with  the  strong  current, 
parallel  with  each  other  and  about  7  feet  apart.  There  were  three  people  in  each  "dug-out" — 
a  woman  with  a  paddle  steering  at  the  prow,  another  woman  crouched  in  the  stern,  and  a 
man  standing  up  in  the  middle.  A  coarse  net  made  of  young  vines,  and  about  5  feet  square, 
was  fastened  to  two  poles  7  or  8  feet  long.  The  men  who  stood  in  the  canoes  each  held  a 
pole,  to  the  upper  end  of  which  the  net  was  attached,  and  attentively  watched  the  water.  The 
salmon  were  coming  up  the  stream  from  the  sea.  The  small  net  was  plunged  into  the  water 
between  the  canoes,  and  nearly  every  time  it  was  raised  a  large  salmon  was  caught  and  flung 
into  one  or  other  of  the  "dug-outs,"  where  the  woman  crouching  in  the  stern  crushed  its  head 
with  a  large  stone.  If  a  fish  escaped,  yells  of  indignation,  especially  from  the  women,  were 
heard.  Both  men  and  women  were  naked,  and  the  dexterity  and  speed  with  which,  they  paddled 
their  canoes  down  the  stream,  working  their  net  at  the  same  time,  and  seldom  missing  a  fish, 
were  marvellous. 

As  the  Ainu  of  to-day  is  and  lives,  so  Japanese  art  and  traditions  depict  him  in  the  dawn 
of  history.  His  language,  religion,  dress,  and  manner  of  life  are  the  same  as  of  old.  He  has 
no  alphabet,  no  writing,  and  no  numbers  above  a  thousand.  In  character  and  morals  he  is 
still  stupid,  good-natured,  brave,  peaceable,  and  gentle,  but  apparently  destined  soon  to  be 
numbered  among  the  extinct  races.  His  religious  notions  are  of  the  vaguest  possible  kind, 
his  gods  being  merely  wooden  sticks  and  posts  so  whittled  as  to  let  the  shavings  fall  down 
in  curls.  But  the  chief  divinity  seems  to  be  the  bear,  which  is  eaten  as  well  as  worshipped. 
A  young  bear,  captured  in  the  early  spring,  and  confined  in  a  cage,  is  kept  in  the  chief's 
house,  where  it  is  suckled  by  an  Ainu  woman,  and  played  with  by  the  children  till  it  becomes 


A    WAYSIDE    RESTING-PLACE    IN    JAPAN. 


i56 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


strong  and  dangerous;  then  the  great  Bear  Feast  is  celebrated,  and  the  sacred  animal  is 
immolated  and  eaten  by  its  worshippers. 

KOREA. 

THE  people  of  the  Peninsula  of  Korea,  numbering  about  8,000,000,  are  mainly  of  Mongolian 
stock,  but  there  may  be  present  also  a  Caucasian  element.  Their  hair  is  black,  but  one  often 
meets  with  faces  that  look  almost  English.  Women  are  not  much  esteemed  among  the 
Koreans,  but  they  enjoy  a  considerable  amount  of  freedom,  and  it  is  only  among  the  upper 
classes  that  they  are  kept  in  seclusion.  Strong  affection  for  their  children  is  one  of  the  better 


Ph.o/o  by  Messrs.  Kujiina  &  Suwo. 


TWO    AINU    MEN    IN    DUG-OUT    CANOE. 


characteristics  of  these  people.  Filial  piety  is  held  in  the  highest  estimation,  and  the  conduct 
of  a  son  to  his  father  is  guided  by  a  great  number  of  rules.  If  he  meets  him  on  the  way, 
he  must  bow  down  to  him  with  the  humblest  obeisance.  If  he  writes  to  him,  he  must 
employ  the  most  respectful  forms  in  the  language.  If  the  father  is  sick,  his  son  must  attend 
him;  if  the  father  is  in  prison,  the  son  must  be  somewhere  close  at  hand.  If  the  father  is 
exiled,  the  son  must  accompany  him  on  his  journey.  On  the  death  of  his  father  the  eldest 
sou  becomes  the  head  of  the  family,  responsible  for  all  the  duties  of  a  father  towards  his 
brothers  and  sisters,  who  receive  no  assigned  share  in  the  patrimony.  The  houses  in  Korea  are 
of  one  storey  only,  flimsily  built  of  wood,  clay,  and  rice-straw,  usually  covered  with  thatch,  and 
very  badly  provided  with  windows.  The  dwellings  of  the  commoner  people  are  only  about 
10  or  12  feet  square,  with  bare  earth  for  floor,  covered  in  a  few  instances  with  mats  of  poor 


AINU    MAN    AND    WIFE. 

157 


158 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


quality.  There  are  no  beds  and  no 
chairs.  The  national  hat  is  composed 
of  a  framework  of  bamboo,  covered 
with  an  open  kind  of  hair-cloth.  It 
affords  no  protection  from  rain,  cold, 
or  sun,  and  is  altogether  very  incon- 
venient. The  shoes  or  sandals  are 
of  straw. 

FORMOSA. 

ONE  of  the  chief  advantages  gained 
by  Japan  in  her  war  with  China  was 
the  accession  of  the  Island  of  Formosa. 
The  settled  Chinese  and  mixed  popu- 
lation is  estimated  at  from  2,500,000 
to  3,000,000,  but  it  is  impossible  to 
form  any  correct  estimate  of  the 
number  of  the  savage  tribes  of  the 
centre  and  mountainous  eastern  dis- 
tricts. Wild  Malay  tribes  inhabit  the 
eastern  side  of  the  island.  The 
aborigines  are  divided  into  a  great 
number  of  tribes,  each  of  which  is 
governed  by  a  headman  or  chief. 
Their  language  also  is  split  up  into 
a  great  number  of  dialects  very 
different  from  each  other.  These 
tribes  exhibit  great  differences  in 
feature,  complexion,  and  customs. 
They  wear  large  ear-ornaments  of 
bamboo,  or  of  the  bone  of  a  cuttle- 
fish. Circular  pieces  of  this  substance 
are  worn  by  the  men  in  the  centre 
of  the  forehead,  where  they  are  held  in  place  by  a  band  of  hemp-cloth  tied  round  the  head. 

In  many  tribes  the  women  are  more  interesting  than  the  men,  for  the  girls  and  young 
married  women  often  possess  inherent  good  qualities  not  to  be  found  in  their  brothers  or 
husbands,  and  notwithstanding  their  wild  surroundings  they  are  well  conducted,  hard  and 
willing  workers,  and  good  wives.  A  curious  custom  among  them  is  that  of  extracting  the 
eye-teeth  of  young  girls,  which  gives  them  a  lisp  and  certainly  does  not  add  to  the  attractive- 
ness of  their  appearance.  On  the  east  coast  the  men  do  the  same,  but  the  inland  tribes  have 
no  such  custom.  Girls  are  tattooed  on  the  face  before  marriage,  the  tattoo  marks  and  lines 
being  so  drawn  as  to  produce  the  effect  of  a  dark  blue  veil  stretched  tightly  from  ear  to  ear 
over  the  mouth;  the  men  also  are  tattooed  on  the  face.  Over  the  doorway  of  a  house  are 
often  suspended  as  trophies  the  skulls  of  wild  boars,  deer,  and  apes.  It  is  recorded  of  an 
unusually  vain-glorious  savage  that  he  made  display  of  a  tuft  consisting  of  six  pig-tails  of 
human  hair,  which  his  own  hand  had  cut  from  the  heads  of  as  many  Chinamen.  Notwith- 
standing their  barbarity,  however,  the  people  are  capable  of  improvement,  and  it  is  said  that 
Christianity  is  here  making  some  progress. 

THE  LIU-KIU   (OR   LOO-CHOO)   ISLANDS. 

THE  natives  of  the  Liu-kiu  Isles  betray  their  Japanese  origin  in  both  their  speech  and  physical 
appearance,   but  there   is  also    an    unmistakable    Chinese    strain.      Possessing    all    the    courtesy 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Kajima  &  Suwo. 

THREE   AINU   WOMEN. 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Kajima  &  Suwo. 


THREE   AINU   MEN. 
159 


i6o 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


and  geniality  of  their  Japanses  kindred,  they  appear  even  to  excel  the  Chinese  in  their 
veneration  for  those  who  have  departed  this  life.  Mr.  Basil  H.  Chamberlain  (Journal  of  the 
Anthropological  Institute,  1894)  says:  "It  were  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that,  if  the  living 
dwell  in  hovels,  the  dead  dwell  in  palaces,  so  imposing  are  the  vaults,  of  which  each  family, 
even  the  very  poorest,  possess  one.  .  The  roofs  of  these  burial-vaults  may  be  seen  from  a 
considerable  distance  at  sea,  on  account  of  the  dazzling  white  plaster  that  distinguishes  them 
from  the  surrounding  vegetation.  On  the  occasion  of  a  death,  the  corpse  is  conveyed  to  the 
family  vault  m-selemn  procession,  a  Buddhist  priest  leading  the  way,  hired  mourners  following 

with  bitter  wails,  and  the  kinsmen  of  the 
dead  bringing  up  the  rear.  The  religious 
rites  duly  concluded,  the  body  is  left  shut 
up  for  two  years.  Then  the  family  again 
assemble  for  the  purpose  of  washing  the 
bones  and  depositing  them  in  their  final 
resting-place,  an  earthenware  urn,  which  is 
lifted  on  to  one  of  the  numerous  shelves 
that  run  round  the  vault.  The  name  of 
the  dead  and  the  date  are  inscribed  in 
Chinese  characters  on  the  urn  in  a  space 
left  for  that  purpose."  A  Liu-kiu  man, 
when  hard  pressed  for  cash,  pawns  his  family 
vault;  for  every  one  knows  that  money  ad- 
vanced on  that  security  must  be  paid  back. 

The  usual  every-day  costume  resembles 
that  of  the  Japanese,  both  men  and  women 
wearing  a  simple  loose  robe.  The  men  of 
these  islands,  unlike  the  Japanese,  wear 
two  large  hair-pins  of  gold,  silver,  or 
pewter,  according  to  the  wearer's  rank.  The 
hair  being  tied  in  a  knot  on  the  top  of 
the  head,  the  pins  are  stuck  through  this. 
Young  men  of  all  classes  shave  clean  up 
to  the  age  of  twenty-five;  after  that  age 
beards  and  moustaches  are  allowed  to  grow. 

The  gait  of  the  people  is  dignified,  the  expression  of  their  faces  usually  serious,  often 
almost  sad,  but  singularly  sweet  in  the  venerable  old  men.  Their  voices  are  soft  and 
low.  All  the  women  tattoo  their  hands;  those  of  the  lower  classes  roll  their  hair  round 
in  a  twist  on  the  top  of  the  head,  Avhere  it  is  fastened  with  hair-pins.  The  native 
courtesans  differ  greatly  in  their  ways  from  those  of  the  mainland  of  Japan,  being  very 
frank  and  straightforward.  It  is  said  that  every  Japanese  trader  arriving  in  these  islands 
engages  one  of  these  women,  to  whom  he  entrusts  everything,  even  to  the  management  of 
his  mercantile  affairs.  When  he  departs,  the  girl  sells  to  the  best  advantage  those  articles 
which  he  confided  to  her  charge.  So  that  when  her  master  comes  back  again,  she  is  able 
to  render  him  a  satisfactory  account,  in  which  there  is  never  any  error  or  prevarication, 
even  to  the  amount  of  a  single  penny. 

According  to  Mr.  Chamberlain,  Buddhism,  as  a  religion  and  a  rule  of  life  in  these  islands, 
is  practically  extinct,  for  Confucianism  has  taken  its  place.  He  speaks  of  the  natives  in  terms 
of  the  highest  praise,  and  says  that  their  system  of  farming  would  put  European  agriculturists 
to  shame.  Schools  flourish  here,  but  of  course  the  women  are  not  educated.  The  roads  are  said 
to  be  bad,  being  (except  in  the  towns)  mere  tracks  impassable  for  wheeled  conveyances,  and 
the  streams  uncrossed  by  bridges. 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Kiiji 


AINU    CHILDREN. 


TIBET 


161 


TIBET. 

THE  Tibetans  occupy  an  extensive  table-laud  in  the  heart  of  Asia,  ranging  from  12,000  to 
17,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  country  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Kuen 
Lun  range  of  mountains,  and  on  the  south  and  south-west  by  the  Himalayas,  and  is  the  loftiest 
table-laud  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  Its  area  exceeds  700,000  square  miles,  of  which  a  great 
part  is  uninhabited  by  human  beings,  while  a  considerable  portion  is  too  mountainous  and 
sterile  to  be  cultivated,  and  is  traversed  only  by  wandering  tribes  of  nomads.  The  centres 
of  the  settled  and  agricultural  population  lie  to  the  south  in  a  region  named  Bod-yul 
by  the  inhabitants,  and  known  as  Bhot  by  the 
Hindus,  their  immediate  neighbours  south  of  the 
Himalayas. 

The  whole  population  of  Tibet  is  estimated 
at  about  8,000,000,  half  of  whom  belong  to 
tribes  governed  by  their  own  chiefs,  and  prac- 
tically independent  of  or  owning  but  a  nominal 
allegiance  to  the  central  authority.  The  people 
who  are  under  the  rule  of  the  supreme  govern- 
ment of  Lassa  occupy  the  southern  provinces, 
the  valley  of  the  Sanpo,  or  Upper  Brahmaputra 
River,  in  which  the  capital  is  situated.  This 
is  the  most  fertile  and  thickly  peopled  portion  of 
the  country,  the  true  Bod-yul — that  is,  land  of  the 
Tibetan  race. 

Several  origins  have  been  assigned  to  the 
name  Tibet,  but  we  need  note  only  that  which 
is  given  in  ancient  Chinese  records.  It  is  there 
said  that  the  king  of  the  country  is  called  diba, 
and  is  descended  from  an  ancient  race  of  the 
Langut  Tartars.  In  A.D  433  the  historical  founder 
of  a  state  in  the  east  of  Tibet  gave  to  his 
dominions  his  own  name  of  Tubat.  This  was  a 
famous  family  name  borne  by  several  Tartar 
dynasties,  and  belonged  to  the  Sien-pi  race,  in 
whose  language  Tubat  means  "a  coverlet." 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Tibetans 
are  a  Mongol  race,  even  though  marked  differences 
of  physical  type  in  certain  localities  plainly  show 
that  other  branches  of  the  human  tree  have 
been  grafted  on  the  Mongol  stock.  The  people 
generally  may  be  characterised  as  slender  of  limb, 
above  the  average  height,  and  strong;  their  eyes 
are  black  and  slightly  oblique;  they  have  large 
mouths,  brown  hair,  no  beards,  clear  ruddy- 
brownish  complexions,  and  an  intelligent  ex- 
pression. They  have  good  natural  gifts,  are  mild  in  temper,  kindly,  and  regard  their  pledged 
word.  They  are  fond  of  music,  dancing,  and  singing,  but  are  entirely  lacking  in  enterprise, 
and  are  thoroughly  imbued  with  superstition.  Being  a  very  social  people,  nearly  all  the 
notable  events  in  life  are  made  occasions  for  friendly  meetings,  feasting,  and  enjoyment.  The 
Tibetans  are  far  less  industrious  and  skilful  than  the  Chinese,  to  whom  they  have  been 
tributary  and  nominally  subject  for  about  180  years.  Those  of  their  industries  that  can  be 
described  as  national,  because  most  generally  practised,  are  few.  They  have  some  skill  in 


Photo  by  Sir  Walter  C.  Hillier,  K.C.M.d 
A   KOREAN   COOLIE. 


162  THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


metal-working,  but  their  statues  and  small  bells  are  no  more  than  creditable  copies  of  Indian 
models.  They  use  iron  of  good  quality  from  their  own  mines  for  making  excellent  blades  for 
sabres  and  other  weapons.  Although  fond  of  precious  stones,  they  do  not  know  how  to  work 
them.  Their  chief  industries  are  connected  with  wool,  which,  on  account  of  the  favourable 


P/toto  by  Sir  Walter  (J.  Hilli-.r,  K.C.M.G. 

KOREAN    SECRETARIES    OF   STATE. 

climate,  is  their  staple  produce.  Weaving  is  generally  the  work  of  women.  Although  they 
do  not  excel  as  manufacturers,  the  Tibetans  are  born  ..traders.  Officers  for  the  superintendence 
and  regulation  of  trade  are  appointed  by  the  king,  the  ministers,  and  the  great  lamaiserais 
(a  kind  of  monastery).  The  two  great  market  centres  are  Shigatze  and  Lassa,  the  capital, 
where  the  caravans  arrive  in  astonishing  numbers  all  through  December  and  January.  Yaks 
and  sheep  are  used  for  transport. 

A  European  traveller,  describing  a  party  of  Tibetan  tent-dwellers,  says  that,  while  the 
men  wore  a  variety  of  coats  and  hats,  certain  leading  characteristics  of  dress  were  common  to 
all.  One  man  wore  a  gaudy  coat  trimmed  with  leopard-skin;  another  had  a  long  grey  woollen 
robe  like  a  dressing-gown,  taken  up  at  the  waist  by  a  belt;  and  a  third  was  clad  in  a  loose 
garb  of  sheep-skin  with  the  wool  inside.  Yet  another  was  arrayed  in  a  deep  red  tunic, 
fastened  by  a  belt  of  leather,  with  silver  ornamentations  inlaid  in  wrought  iron,  the  belt 
holding  a  needle-case,  tinder-pouch  and  steel,  a  pretty  dagger  with  sheath  of  ebony,  and  other 
articles.  Most  Tibetan  men  wear  a  sword  in  the  front  of  their  belts,  and  whether  the  coat 
is  long  or  short  it  is  invariably  loose,  and  'made  to  bulge  at  the  waist,  where  the  wearer 
generally  carries  two  or  three  eating  and  drinking  utensils,  a  snuff-box,  such  bags  of  money 
as  he  may  possess,  and  one  or  two  bricks  of  compressed  tea.  It  is  owing  to  this  custom  that 
Tibetan  men  at  first  sight  look  stout,  although  as  a  matter  of  fact  they  are  really  very  thin. 
When  standing  or  walking,  they  leave  one  arm  and  part  of  the  chest  bare,  letting  the  sleeve 
hang  loose.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  days  are  very  hot  and  the  nights  cold;  and  as 
Tibetans  always  sleep  in  their  clothes,  the  garments  that  protect  their  bodies  from  frost  during 
the  night  are  too  warm  in  the  day,  and  therefore  this  expedient  is  adopted.  When  sitting 


164 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


down,  both  arms  are  drawn  from  the 
sleeves,  and  the  chest  and  back  are  left 
bare.  When  on  foot,  one  arm  is  slipped 
in  to  prevent  the  coat  and  its  heavy 
contents  from  falling  off. 

The  Tibetans  have  innumerable 
varieties  of  head-gear,  although  many 
men  go  about  uncovered.  Conical  brown 
and  grey  felt  hats,  not  unlike  filters,  are 
common,  as  also  are  cloth  or  fur  caps 
with  ear-flaps.  The  ground  of  the  head- 
dress in  our  illustration  on  this  page  is 
of  cloth  of  a  claret  colour,  with  rough 
turquoises  sewn  on,  and  silver  ornaments 
on  the  buckles  in  front.  The  appendages 
at  the  side  of  the  head  are  made  of  the 
hair  of  some  animal,  and  fastened  on  to 
the  natural  hair.  The  mantle  is  lined 
with  sheep-skin,  and  has  an  outer  covering 
of  cloth,  half  red  and  half  dark  green. 
The  woman  on  the  left  wears  an  em- 
broidered mantle-cloth. 

There  are  two  religions  in  Tibet — 
Buddhism,  in  the  form  of  Lamaism,  and 
an  earlier  creed,  generally  called  the  Bon 
or  Bonla  religion,  of  which  not  much 
is  known. 

Lassa,  the  capital  of  Tibet,  is  the 
sacred  city  of  the  Buddhists,  and  the 
centre  of  Lamaism,  the  religion  which 
prevails  throughout  that  country  and 
Mongolia.  The  name  of  the  city  signifies 
"Seat  of  the  gods."  The  fundamental 
doctrines  of  Lamaism  are  those  taught 
by  Buddha  about  450  years  before  the 
beginning  of  our  era;  but  so  much  has 
been  added  to  the  original  articles  of 
belief  in  the  course  of  centuries,  that  Lamaism  is  really  Buddhism  corrupted  by  belief  in 
Siva  and  other  spirits  whose  existence  Buddha  did  not  acknowledge,  while  Lamaists  worship 
them  as  gods.  The  central  point  of  pure  Buddhism  is  that  deliverance  on  the  part  of 
man  from  all  the  evils  and  sorrows  of  life  can  be  achieved  here  on  earth  by  the  practice  of 
self-control,  self-denial,  and  constant  intellectual  self-culture.  The  essence  of  all  that  is  sacred 
in  Lamaism  is  comprised  under  three  heads,  which  they  call  the  "three  most  precious 
jewels."  The  first  is  the  "  Buddha  jewel";  the  second,  the  "doctrine  jewel";  and  the  third, 
the  "priesthood  jewel."  The  first  person  in  this  trinity,  the  Buddha,  is  not  regarded  as 
the  creator  of  the  universe,  but  as  the  founder  of  the  doctrine,  the  highest  saint,  though 
endowed  with  all  the  qualities  of  supreme  wisdom,  power,  virtue,  and  beauty.  The  second 
jewel  is  the  law,  or  religion,  that  which  constitutes,  as  it  were,  the  existence  of  Buddha 
on  earth  after  he  had  entered  the  Nirvana,  or  state  of  everlasting  rest.  The  third  jewel, 
the  priesthood,  is  the  congregation  of  all  the  saints,  those  who  are  in  the  flesh,  and  those 

*  The  writer  is  greatly  indebted  to  Mr.  H.  C.  V.  Hunter,   F.R.G.S.,   for  the  excellent  photographs  of   Tibetans  here 
reproduced,  which  were  taken  by  himself  when  travelling  in  Tibet. 


Photo  by  Mr.  11.   C.    V.  Hunter,  F.B. 


WOMEN    AND    GIRL    OF    LADAK." 


TIBET 


who  are  disembodied  spirits.  The  latter  comprise  the  five  Buddhas  of  contemplation,  and  all 
those  myriads  of  pious  men  who  became  canonised  after  death.  Inferior  in  rank  to  these 
saints  are  the  gods  and  spirits,  such  as  Indra,  the  god  of  the  firmament;  Yama,  the  god  of 
death  and  the  infernal  regions;  Siva,  the  god  of  vengeance — the  avenger  in  his  most  terrible 
shape;  and  Vaisravana,  the  god  of  wealth.  Lamaism,  like  Buddhism,  forbids  injury  to  life, 
and  does  not  allow  the  burial  of  the  dead  as  practised  by  us.  Persons  distinguished  by  rank, 
learning,  or  piety  are  burned  after  their  death;  but  the  general  way  for  disposing  of  dead 
bodies  is  to  expose  them  in  the  open  air  to  be  devoured  by  birds  and  beasts  of  prey. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  Lamaism  is  the  organisation  of  its  hierarchy,  or 
priesthood.  It  may  be  said  there  are  two  heads  of  the  national  religion  in  Tibet.  This 
anomalous  feature  resulted  from  the  action  of  a  reformer,  one  Tsongkapa,  who  has  been  styled 
"the  Luther  of  Tibet,"  though  his  attack  on  the  corruptions  in  Lamaism  was  effected  two 
hundred  years  before  the  Protestant  Reformation.  He  died  in  Lassa  in  1419,  and  there  were 
then  in  that  city  three  huge  monasteries  containing  30,000  of  his  disciples,  besides  many 
more  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  In  doctrine  this  great  Tibetan  teacher  adhered  to  the 
purer  forms  of  the  Buddhist  school.  He  took  very  little  part  in  church  government,  and  did 
not  question  the  right  of  the  SaJcya  Lamas  to  supremacy  in  title,  though  in  other  matters 
he  raised  and  resolutely  maintained  the  standard  of  revolt  till  his  ends  were  attained.  So 
completely  did  the  new  sect  outnumber  and  overshadow  the  old,  that  the  Emperor  of  China 
in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  acknowledged  the  two  leaders  of  the  reformed  religionists 
as  titular  overlords  of  the  Church  and  tributary  rulers  of  the  realm  of  Tibet.  These  two 
rulers  were  then  known  as  the  Dalai  Lama  and  the  Pantshen  Lama,  and  were  the  abbots 
of  the  great  monasteries  at  Gedun  Dubpa,  near  Lassa,  and  at  Krashis  Lunpo,  in  Further 
Tibet,  respectively.  Since  that  time  the  abbots  of  these  monasteries  have  continued  to 
exercise  sovereignty  over  the  country. 

The  reincarnation  of  a  Lama's  spirit  is  naturally  regarded  as  an  event  of  greater  consequence 


PlMto  by  Mr.  H.  O.   V.  Hunter,  F.R.  G.S. 

BUDDHIST   PRIESTS   AT   LEH,    WITH    COPPER   TRUMPETS,    DRUMS,    AND    CYMBALS. 


i66 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Pkolo  by  Mtgnrs.  Kapp  &  Co.} 


TIliKTAX    DA.NTKKS. 


than  the  restoration  to  flesh  of  an  ordinary  layman's  soul.  To  ascertain  when  that  takes  place, 
several  means  are  resorted  to.  Sometimes  the  deceased  had,  before  his  death,  confidentially 
mentioned  to  his  friends  where  and  in  which  family  he  would  reappear,  or  possibly  his  will 
contained  an  intimation  with  the  same  purport.  In  most  cases,  however,  the  sacred  books  and 
the  official  astrologers  are  consulted,  and  they,  by  virtue  of  an  extraordinary  wisdom  amounting 
to  inspiration,  after  many  ceremonies  and  long  periods  of  contemplation,  give  all  who  are 
interested  the  information  they  seek.  It  can  be  easily  imagined  that  extraordinary  and 
startling  consequences  may  result  from  the  introduction  of  the  same  soul  as  the  vivifying 
principle  in  members  of  different  and  probably  hostile  families. 

What  must  be  regarded  as  the  Lamaist  clergy  consists  of  four  orders;  and  the  lowest 
of  these,  having  no  claim  to  holiness  on  the  grounds  of  good  works  done  by  predecessors, 
recruits  its  ranks  on  the  principles  of  personal  merit  and  theological  proficiency.  It  has  four 
grades.  Every  member  must  make  the  vow  of  celibacy,  and  by  far  the  greater  number  of 
them  live  in  convents.  A  Lamaist  convent,  or  lamaiserai,  consists  of  a  temple,  which  forms  its 
centre,  and  of  a  number  of  buildings  connected  with  the  temple,  appropriated  as  the  meeting- 
rooms,  library,  refectory,  dwellings,  and' for  other  worldly  and  spiritual  wants  of  the  monks. 
Lumaism  has  likewise  its  nuns  and  nunneries.  The  Lamaist  Sacred  Books  bear  the  name 
of  the  Kandjur,  and  consist  of  1,083  distinct  works,  which,  in  some  editions,  fill  from 
102  to  108  volumes,  folio.  The  political  authority  of  the  Dalai  Lama  is  confined  to  Tibet, 
but  he  is  the  acknowledged  head  of  the  Buddhist  Church  also  throughout  Mongolia  and  China. 

The  Bonba  are  sometimes  called  the  "  Sect  of  the  Black,"  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
''Red"  or  "Yellow"  Lamaists,  these  appellations  arising  from  the  colour  of  the  garments 
worn  by  the  members  of  the  respective  sects.  The  Bonba  have  eighteen  principal  gods  and 
goddesses,  of  whom  the  most  popular  and  the  one  universally  Avorshipped  is  the  "  Tiger-god 
of  Glowing  Fire."  Those  Bonba  who,  when  travelling,  camp  in  black  tents  are  presumably 
very  orthodox,  and  perhaps  divide  their  worship  among  a  dozen  at  least  of  their  divinities. 


P/ioto  by  Messrs.  Johnson  cfc  llvffmun\ 


TWO    LAMAS    OF    NUD. 

167 


i68 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Bourne  &  Shepherd] 


[Bombay. 


TIBETAN    WOMEN. 


As  Mr.  Andrew  Wilson  says,  the  Tibetans  are  "  the  most  pre-eminently  praying  people  in 
the  world.  .  .  .  They  have  praying-stones,  praying-pyramids,  praying-flags  flying  over  every  house, 
praying- wheels,  praying-mills,  and  the  universal  prayer  'Om  mane  paclme  hum''*  is  never  out 
of  their  mouths."  These  four  words,  as  Colonel  Yule  remarks,  among  all  prayers  on  earth,  form 
that  which  is  most  abundantly  recited,  written,  printed,  and  even  spun  by  machines  for  the 
good  of  the  faithful.  "  They  are  the  only  prayer  known  to  the  ordinary  Tibetans  and  Mongols — 
the  first  words  the  child  learns  to  stammer,  the  last  gasping  utterances  of  the  dying." 

Colonel  T.  G.  Montgomerie,  R.E.,  thus  describes  the  ' 'prayer- wheel  "  of  Tibet,  which,  he 
says,  "consists  of  a  hollow,  cylindrical  copper  bag,  which  revolves  round  a  spindle,  one  end  of 
which  forms  the  handle.  The  cylinder  is  turned  by  means  of  a  piece  of  copper  attached  to  a 
string.  A  slight  twist  of  the  hand  makes  the  cylinder  revolve,  and  each  revolution  represents 
one  repetition  of  the  prayer,  which  is  written  on  a  scroll  kept  under  the  cylinder  [sometimes  it 
is  engraved  outside].  The  prayer-wheels  are  of  all  sizes,  from  that  of  a  large  barrel  downwards; 
but  those  carried  in  the  hand  are  generally  4  or  6  inches  in  height  by  about  3  inches  in 
diameter,  with  a  handle  projecting  about  4  inches  below  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder.  .  .  . 
The  top  of  the  cylinder  was  made  large  enough  to  allow  the  paper  to  be  taken  out  when 
required.  The  rosary,  which  ought  to  have  108  beads,  was  made  of  100  beads,  every  tenth 
bead  being  much  larger  than  the  others  [this  refers  to  the  one  used  by  a  certain  pundit]. 
The  small  beads  were  made  of  a  red  composition  to  imitate  coral,  the  large  ones  of  the  dark 
corrugated  seeds  of  the  ridrds.  The  rosary  was  carried  on  the  left  sleeve." 

*  The  meaning  of  this  sentence  seems  to   have  been   lost ;  but   some   say  it  may  be   translated  "  God   the  jewel  in 
the  lotus." 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  ANDAMAN  ISLANDS.— THE  VEDDAS  OF  CEYLON.— THE  ABORIGINAL 
RACES  OF  INDIA:  CENSUS  RETURNS  OF  POPULATION:  CLASSIFICATION 
OF  RACES:  THE  ARYAN  INVASION:  CASTE:  KOLS,  GONDS,  TOD  AS, 
KHONDS,  ETC. 


THE   ANDAMAN   ISLANDS. 


THE  people  of  the 
smaller  and  lower 
group  of  islands, 
known  as  Little  An- 
daman, have  always 
shown  so  much  hos- 
tility to  strangers  that 
our  knowledge  of  them 
is  extremely  slight. 
Concerning  those  from 
the  Great  Andaman 
Islands,  it  may  be 
said  that  we  possess  a 
fairly  complete  know- 
ledge, thanks  chiefly 
to  the  work  of  Mr.  E. 
H.  Man  and  the  late 
Mr.  G.  E.  Dobson,  to 
whom  we  are  indebted 
for  the  following  brief 
description.  The 
average  height  of  the 
men  is  4  feet  lOf 
inches  (very  few  ex- 
ceed 5  feet  in  height), 
and  that  of  the 
women  4  feet  7£ 
inches,  while  the 
average  weight  of  the 
former  is  98£  Ibs., 
which  is  about  half  the 
average  weight  of  an 
Englishman.  Mr.  E. 
H.  Man,  their  English 
protector  and  friend, 
who  has  for  many 
years  been  in  charge 


Photo  by  the  late  G.  E.  Dobson,  M.B.  (by  permission  of  the  Anthropological  Institute). 

A   GROUP    OF   ANDAMANESE. 
(The  woman  in  the  centre,  who  is  a  widow,  wears  her  late  hushaiid's  skull  on  her  shoulder. 

The  girdles  are  of  bamboo.) 
169  22 


iyo 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


THE   CHIEF   OF   A    TRIBE   LIVING   IX   THE   VICINITY    OF   PORT   BLAIR, 
AND   HIS   WIFE. 


of   these    people,   says   that 
they  are  well  developed. 

The  peculiar  goat-like 
exhalations  of  the  Negro 
are  absent,  but  the  odour 
of  their  presence  is  chiefly 
due  to  the  unguent  they 
use,  which  is  composed  of 
red  oxide  of  iron,  being 
mixed  with  the  fat  of  either 
the  turtle  or  the  pig.  The 
general  excellence  of  the 
teeth  is  remarkable.  Their 
hair  is  extremely  frizzly, 
growing  apparently  in  spiral 
tufts;  its  colour  is  usually 
quite  black,  turning  grey 
at  about  the  fortieth  year. 
Their  clothing  is  of  the 
scantiest  description,  and 
what  little  they  have  serves 
chiefly  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. 

They  live  in  small  encampments  and  in  dwellings  rudely  constructed  of  branches  and 
leaves  of  trees.  They  have  absolutely  no  agriculture,  and  keep  no  poultry  or  domestic  animals. 
With  dug-out  canoes  and  outriggers  they  navigate  the  numerous  creeks  of  the  islands.  They 
are  expert  swimmers  and  divers.  Though  constantly  using  fire,  they  are  quite  ignorant  of 
the  art  of  producing  it,  and  therefore  take  great  care  to  keep  up  a  constant  supply  of 
burning  or  smouldering  wood.  Being  entirely  ignorant  of  metals,  they  use  shells  for  many 
domestic  purposes,  especially  a  species  of  Gyrene,  found  abundantly,  also  chips  of  quartz  and 
bamboo  for  knives.  This  wood,  being  very  hard,  produces  good  cutting  edges,  which  they 
even  use  for  shaving.  Anvils  and  hammers  are  of  stone  (as  with  our  ancestors  of  the  Stone 
Age).  Baskets,  fishing-nets,  and  sleeping-mats  are  made  of  vegetable  fibres.  With  the  bow 
and  arrow  they  are  very  skilful;  and,  as  seen  in  our  illustrations  on  pages  171  and  172,  they 
shoot  fish  with  arrows.  The  islands  yieid  them  an  abundant  supply  of  food.  They  feed  chiefly 
on  pigs,  dugongs,  porpoises,  iguana  lizards,  turtles  and  their  eggs,  and  many  kinds  of  fish, 
prawns,  molluscs,  the  larvae  of  beetles,  honey,  and  numerous  roots  (as  yams),  fruits,  and  seeds. 
Food  is  invariably  cooked,  and  before  the  advent  of  Europeans  they  drank  only  water  and 
had  never  seen  tobacco;  now  they  are  very  fond  of  the  fragrant  weed. 

The  social  life  of  these  Negritos  is  enveloped  in  a  perfect  maze  of  unwritten  law  or 
custom,  the  intricacies  of  which  it  is  difficult  for  strangers  to  unravel.  The  relations  they 
may  or  may  not  marry,  the  food  they  are  obliged  or  forbidden  to  take  at  particular  epochs  of 
life  or  seasons  of  the  year,  the  words  and  names  they  may  or  may  not  pronounce,  their  games, 
amusements,  traditions,  and  superstitions— all  these  and  other  matters  have  been  carefully 
observed  by  Mr.  Man. 

With  regard  to  the  character  of  these  people,  the  reader  will  perhaps  be  surprised  to  learn 
that  they  treat  their  women  with  great  consideration.  Self-respect  and  modesty  characterise 
their  intercourse  with  one  another.  From  early  youth  the  young  people  are  instructed  in  the 
duties  of  hospitality,  while  the  aged,  the  suffering,  and  the  helpless  are  objects  of  special 
attention.  It  has  often  been  observed  by  travellers  that  modesty  and  morality  do  not  depend 
upon  the  amount  of  clothing  considered  necessary  by  so-called  savages.  The  Andamanese 
present  a  case  in  point;  for  in  spite  of  their  scanty  clothing  the  self-respect  and  the  modesty 


THE    ANDAMAN    ISLANDS 


which  characterise  their  intercourse  one  with  another  have  been  remarked  by  all  observers. 
The  curious  and  by  no  means  uncommon  custom  of  adoption  prevails  among  these  people. 

Strangers  introduced  by  mutual  friends  are  invariably  warmly  welcomed  by  the  whole 
community;  the  best  food  in  the  encampment  is  set  before  them,  and  in  every  way  they 
are  Avell  treated,  presents  being  frequently  given  to  them,  especially  when  about  to  depart. 
;' Speeding  the  guest"  is  an  axiom  with  these  people,  and  the  host  always  accompanies  his 
friend  to  the  landing-place.  When  bidding  each  other  farewell,  the  guest  takes  the  hand  of 
his  host  and  blows  upon  it.  When  the  compliment  has  been  returned,  the  departing  visitor 
says,  "I  am  off,"  to  which  his  kind  host  replies,  "  Very  well,  go  ;  when  will  you  come  again?" 
After  blowing  once  more  on  each  other's  hands,  the  two  friends  part,  shouting  invitations  and 
promises  for  a  future  date. 

Contrary  to   the    customs   of   most   races,   no   salutations   pass   between   friends   even   after  a 


ritot.0  bij  Menxi-s.  P.  Kltlr  &   Co.} 


[Hangoon. 


ANDAMANESE    SHOOTING    FISH. 


rather  long  separation.  Kissing,  rubbing  noses,  hand-shaking,  etc.,  are  quite  unknown.  The 
two  friends  merely  gaze  silently  into  each  other's  faces.  But  with  relations  the  case  is  rather 
different.  Two  relations  after  a  long  separation  demonstrate  their  joy  at  meeting  by  sitting 
with  their  arms  round  each  other's  necks  and  weeping  and  howling  in  a  manner  which  would 
lead  a  stranger  to  suppose  that  some  bitter  sorrow  had  befallen  them.  In  fact,  there  seems  to 
be  no  difference  at  all  between  demonstrations  of  joy  and  of  grief.  When  any  one  dies,  the 
women  begin  to  cry  in  loud  chorus,  but  the  men  speedily  join  in.  Then  they  all  weep 
together,  until,  through  sheer  exhaustion,  they  are  compelled  to  desist.  Then  if  neither  of 
the  parties  is  in  mourning,  they  get  up  a  dance,  in  which  the  families  not  infrequently  take 
part.  When  a  husband  returns  to  his  home,  his  wife  hangs  upon  his  neck  and  sobs  with  joy 
as  if  her  heart  would  break.  He  then  goes  to  his  relations,  who  also  burst  into  tears. 

The  early  stories  of  cannibalism  among  these  people  do  not  at  the  present  day  require  to 
be  refuted.  The  natives  express  the  greatest  horror  of  such  a  custom,  and  indignantly  deny 
that  it  ever  held  a  place  among  their  own  institutions. 

Marriage  is  only  allowed  between  those  who  are  known  to  be  not  even  distantly  connected. 
So  inexorable  is  this  rule  that  it  applies  equally  to  such  as  are  merely  falsely  related  by  the 
custom  of  adoption  above  referred  to.  A  first  cousin,  even  if  only  a  cousin  by  adoption,  is 


172 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


regarded  as  a  half-brother  or  a  half-sister,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  nephews  and  nieces  are 
looked  upon  almost  as  sous  and  daughters.  Notwithstanding  the  lack  of  female  chastity  before 
marriage,  the  girls  are  always  modest  and  childlike  in  their  behaviour,  and  when  married 
they  make  good  wives  and  become  models  of  constancy.  The  statement  made  by  some 
writers  that  communal  marriage  here  exists  is  without  foundation.  As  they  have  no  idea  of 
invoking  the  aid  or  the  blessing  of  a  Supreme  Being,  nothing  of  a  religious  character 
attaches  to  the  marriage  ceremony.  It  often  happens  that  a  young  couple  will  pass  several 
days  after  their  nuptials  without  exchanging  one  single  word,  and  to  such  an  extent  do  they 
carry  their  bashfulness  that  they  even  avoid  looking  at  each  other.  In  fact,  their  behaviour 
would  lead  a  stranger  to  suppose  that  some  serious  quarrel  had  arisen. 


THE  VEDDAS   OF   CEYLON. 

THE  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Ceylon  are  the  Veddas,*  who  until  a  comparatively  recent  period 
ranged  over  a  much  more  extended  area.  They  may  be  regarded  as  a  remnant  of  the  Yakkos, 
who,  after  the  conquest  of  the  island,  retired  before  the  invaders  into  the  wilder  parts, 
withdrawing  themselves  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  jungle,  so  as  to  avoid  contact  with  the 
conquering  race.  For  upwards  of  2,000  years  this  remarkable  fragment  of  an  ancient  race 
has  remained  almost  unaltered  as  regards  its  customs,  language,  and  pursuits,  and  therefore 
exhibits  to  the  present  day  a  living  portrait  of  the  condition  of  the  islanders  as  described  by 
the  native  chroniclers  before  the  conquerors  had  taught  the  people  even  the  rudiments  of 
agriculture. 

All    Veddas    present     the     same     characteristics    of    wretchedness    and    dejection — namely, 

*  All  except  one  of  our  illustrations  of  Veddas  are  from  photographs  kindly  sent  by  Dr.  Paul  and  Dr.  Fritz 
Sarasin,  of  Basle,  whose  valuable  German  monograph  on  the  subject  is  adorned  by  very  many  of  their  photographs. 
One  is  by  the  Apothecaries'  Company  of  Colombo. 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Bourne  &  Shepherd\ 

A   GROUP   OF   ANDAMANESE.      METHOD   OF   SHOOTING   TURTLE. 


[Bombay. 


THE    VEDDAS    OF    CEYLON 


173 


projecting  jaws,  prominent  teeth, 
flat  noses,  small  stature,  and  every 
evidence  of  the  effects  of  in- 
sufficient diet.  The  children  are 
unsightly  objects,  entirely  naked, 
with  ill-shaped  limbs,  huge  heads, 
and  prominent  stomachs;  the 
women,  as  the  reader  will  see  from 
our  illustrations  on  pages  173-7, 
are,  to  say  the  least,  not  pleasing 
specimens  of  humanity.  Some  of 
the  men  and  women  present  a 
type  apparently  somewhat  similar 
to  that  of  the  native  Australian. 

Those  who  live  in  the  forests 
subsist  chiefly  on  roots,  fish,  honey, 
iguana  lizards,  and  the  products 
of  the  chase,  such  as  the  Wandura 
monkey,  the  deer,  and  the  wild 
boar.  In  their  choice  of  food  they 
are  omnivorous,  no  carrion  or  even 
vermin  being  too  repulsive  to  suit 
their  appetite;  but  grain  and 
fruits,  when  procurable,  are  used. 
Being  skilful  archers,  they  bring 
down  with  their  long  arrows  such 
prey  as  bats,  crows,  owls,  and 
kites,  but  for  some  curious  reason 
they  will  not  touch  the  bear,  the 
elephant,  or  the  buffalo.  The 
flesh  of  deer  and  other  animals 
they  dry  in  the  sun  and  store  it 
away  in  hollow  trees  for  use  on 
some  future  occasion.  Their  food 
is  always  cooked. 

Veddas  may  be  divided,  according  to  Sir  James  Tennent,  into  three  groups:  first,  the 
"  Rock  Veddas,"  who  till  lately  dwelt  almost  entirely  within  the  Bintenne  forests,  and  lodged 
in  caves  or  under  the  shelter  of  overhanging  rocks,  sometimes  sleeping  in  trees,  in  which  a 
kind  of  stage  or  platform  has  been  constructed;  secondly,  the  "Village  Veddas,"  on  the  eastern 
coast,  where  they  cultivate  some  kinds  of  grain,  and  even  dwell  in  rude  huts  of  mud  and  bark. 
These  Village  Veddas  are  but  slightly  removed  from  the  wild  tribes  of  the  jungle,  with  whom 
they  have  no  dealings.  Their  position  is  somewhat  intermediate  between  the  more  or  less 
civilised  people  of  Kandi  and  the  Veddas  of  the  rock.  Probably  they  have  to  some  extent 
intermarried  with  the  people  of  Kandi.  The  only  garment  they  wear  is  a  bit  of  cloth  larger 
than  that  worn  by  the  forest  tribes.  Some,  as  the  reader  will  see  from  the  illustrations  on 
pages  173-7,  simply  make  a  substitute  for  cloth  out  of  leaves.  The  women  ornament  themselves 
with  necklaces  of  brass  beads  and  bangles  cut  out  of  shells. 

The  third  division,  or  "  Coast  Veddas,"  numbering  about  300,  have  settled  down  in  the 
jungles,  and  eke  out  a  living  by  helping  the  fishermen  in  their  operations,  or  by  felling  timber 
for  the  Moors,  to  be  floated  down  the  rivers  to  the  sea.  By  the  assistance  of  the  Government 
their  condition  has  been  materially  improved.  In  the  year  1844  they  came  in,  expressing  the 
utmost  reluctance  to  abandon  the  seashore  and  the  water,  but  nevertheless  gladly  accepting 


Photo  by  Doctors  Paul  and  Fritz  Sarasin,  Basle. 
A   VEDDA   WOMAN. 


174- 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


patches  of  land  which  were  cleared  for  them  in 
the  forest  near  the  beach.  Cottages  were  built, 
fruit-trees  were  planted,  and  seed  was  supplied. 
Education  has  here  made  some  progress,  and  as 
the  result  of  missionary  enterprise  the  majority 
of  them  have  embraced  Christianity. 

The  principal  weapon  of  the  Veddas  is  a  big 
bow  6  feet  long,  the  strings  of  which  they  prepare 
from  the  tough  bark  of  the  upas-tree.  They 
occasionally  use  their  feet  as  well  as  their  hands 
in  manipulating  the  bow;  but  it  cannot  be  said 
that  their  skill  in  archery  is  great,  for  they  appear 
to  bring  down  game  rather  through  luck  than  by 
any  adroitness. 

Formerly  the  country  was  regarded  by  Euro- 
peans with  some  apprehension.  This  was  due  to 
absurdly  exaggerated  misrepresentations  on  the 
part  of  the  people  of  Kandi,  who  attributed  to 
them  a  savage  disposition,  so  that  none  but  armed 
parties  ventured  to  pass  through  their  fastnesses. 
Of  late  years,  however,  this  delusion  has  been 
entirely  dispelled,  and  travellers  now  feel  them- 
selves as  safe  in  the  neighbourhood  of  these  people 
as  in  the  villages  of  the  Singhalese.  They  are 
constantly  visited  by  traders  in  search  of  deer's 
horns  and  ivory,  also  supplies  of  dried  deer's  flesh 
and  of  honey.  The  Veddas  have  to  a  large  extent 
lost  their  former  shyness  and  timidity,  so  that 
now  they  not  only  come  with  confidence  into  the 
open  country,  but  even  venture  into  the  towns 
for  such  commodities  as  they  can  purchase  with 
their  slender  means.  Mr.  Atherton,  formerly 
Assistant  Government  Agent,  spoke  in  favourable 
terms  of  the  gentleness  of  their  disposition. 
Notwithstanding  an  apparently  almost  complete 
indifference  to  morals,  grave  crimes,  he  said,  were 
rarely  committed.  In  cases  of  theft  the  delin- 
quent, if  detected,  must  make  restitution.  Thus, 

if  a  girl  be  carried  off  from  her  parents,  she  is  claimed  and  brought  home.  The  husband 
of  a  faithless  wife  is  content  to  receive  her  back,  while  his  family  punish  the  seducer  by 
flogging  him.  Murder  is  almost  unknown.  In  a  general  way  these  people  may  be  described 
as  gentle  and  affectionate  one  to  another.  They  are  strongly  attached  to  both  their  children 
and  their  relatives.  Widows  are  invariably  supported  by  the  local  community,  receiving  their 
share  of  fruits  or  grain  and  the  products  of  the  chase.  Altogether  they  appear  to  be  a  quiet 
and  submissive  race,  obeying  the  slightest  expression  of  a  wish,  and  being  very  grateful  for  any 
assistance  or  attention.  They  consider  themselves  superior  to  their  neighbours,  and  are  unwilling 
to.  exchange  their  wild  forest  life  for  any  other.  Their  intellectual  capacity  is  very  low;  they 
cannot  count,  even  on  their  fingers,  and  their  memory  is  most  defective.  They  never  wash, 
thinking  it  would  weaken  them!  and  they  never  laugh!  With  regard  to  their  moral  character, 
it  is  only  fair  to  add  that  another  writer,  Mr.  B.  F.  Hartshorne,  who  contributes  an  interesting 
paper  on  these  people  to  The  Fortnightly  Review  for  1876  (New  Series,  Vol.  XIX.,  page  406), 
says  that  they  think  it  perfectly  inconceivable  that  any  person  should  ever  take  that  which 


Photo  bij  Doctors  Paul  and  Friiz  tiarasin,  tiasle. 

A    VEDDA    MAN,    WITH    LEAF    GIRDLE. 


Photo  by  the  Colombo  Apothecaries'  Co.] 


[  Ceylon. 


TWO   VEDDAS,    -\VITH    BOWS. 

175 


i76 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Photo  by  Doctors  Paul  and  Fritz  Sarafin,  Basle 
A    VEDDA   MAN   (PROFILE). 


The  Yeddas  have   no  knowledge   of    a   God, 
idols,  and  no  altars.      They  have  nothing  which 
certain  ceremonies,   by   means  of  which   they  hope 
believe  to  be  the  cause  of  death  and  disease. 


does  not  belong  to  him,  strike  his  fellow,  or 
say  anything  that  is  untrue. 

The  language  of  the  Veddas,  which  is 
extremely  limited,  is  said  to  be  a  dialect  of 
the  Singhalese. 

They  appear  to  have  no  marriage 
ceremonies,  although  acknowledging  the  duty 
of  supporting  their  families.  Marriages 
amongst  them  are  settled  by  the  parents  of 
the  young  people.  The  bride's  father  presents 
his  son-in-law  with  a  bow,  while  his  own 
father  bestows  upon  him  the  right  of  chase 
in  any  portion  of  his  hunting-ground.  The 
youth  presents  the  lady  of  his  choice  with 
a  cloth  and  a  few  simple  ornaments,  where- 
upon she  straightway  follows  him  into  the 
forest,  where  they  become  man  and  wife. 
They  are  not  polygamists,  probably  because 
the  man's  slender  means  will  not  allow  of 
supporting  more  than  one  wife.  Marriage 
with  sisters  is  allowed,  but  never  with  the 
eldest  sister;  and  they  are  generally  re- 
markable for  constancy  and  affection. 

These  people  live  in  such  a  primitive 
state  that  what  we  should  call  a  funeral  is 
quite  unknown.  Instead  of  burying  their 
dead  they  simply  cover  them  with  leaves 
and  brushwood  from  the  jungle, 
not  even  of  a  future  state,  no  temples,  no 
one  can  call  an  act  of  worship,  unless  it  be 
to  drive  away  the  evil  spirits  which  they 


INDIA.* 

IN  describing  the  "Hindu  type"  Dr.  Topiuard,  in  his  well-known  "Anthropology,"  divides  the 
population  of  the  Indian  Peninsula  into  three  strata — viz.  the  Black,  the  Mongolian,  and 
the  Aryan.  "The  remnants  of  the  first,"  he  says,  "are  at  the  present  time  shut  up  in  the 
mountains  of  Central  India  under  the  name  of  Bhils,  Mahairs,  Gonds,  and  Khonds;  and  in 
the  South  under  the  name  of  Yenadis,  Maravers,  Kurumbas,  Yeddas,  etc.  Its  primitive 
characters,  apart  from  its  black  colour  and  low  stature,  are  difficult  to  discover,  but  it  is  to 
be  noticed  that  travellers  do  not  speak  of  woolly  hair  in  India.  The  second  has  spread  over 
the  plateaux  of  Central  India  by  two  lines  of  way,  one  to  the  north-east,  the  other  to  the 
north-west.  The  remnants  of  the  first  invasion  are  seen  in  the  Dravidian  or  Tamil  tribes,  and 
those  of  the  second  in  the  Jats.  The  third,  more  recent,  and  more  important  as  to  quality 
than  as  to  number,  was  the  Aryan."  The  same  authority,  in  harmony  with  the  late  Mr.  Huxley, 
considered  the  Australians  to  be  also  Dravidian,  and  therefore  allied  to  the  ancient  inhabitants 

*  For  permission  to  reproduce  the  photographs  illustrating  India,  Afghanistan,  and  Baluchistan,  the  writer  is 
much  indebted  to  Messrs.  Bourne  &  Shepherd ;  Herr  Karl  Hagenbeck,  of  Hamburg ;  Messrs.  Watts  &  Skeen,  Rangoon : 
Messrs.  Frith  &  Sons;  Mr.  Fred.  Bremner,  Quetta;  to  the  Under-Secretary  of  State  for  India  for  permission  to  use 
photographs  illustrating  two  books  published  by  the  Indian  Government,  which  we  quote  in  the  text ;  and  to  Messrs.  J.  W. 
Gregory  &  Co.,  Strand,  W.C. 


INDIA 


177 


of  the  Deccan.  The  features  of  the  present  blacks  in  India,  and  the  characters  which  the 
Dravidian  and  Australian  languages  have  in  common,  tend  to  assimilate  them.  The  existence 
of  the  boomerang  in  the  two  countries  helps  to  support  this  view.  We  would  ask  the  reader 
to  judge  for  himself  whether  the  remarkable  photograph  of  a  female  Vedda  on  page  173  does 
not  show  quite  a  striking  resemblance  to  those  of  Australian  women  in  Chapter  III. 

The  second  general  census  of  India,  taken  in  1891,  gave  a  population  of  over  287,000,000; 
or,  including  the  French  and  Portuguese  settlements,  of  over  289,000,000.  This  figure  is  about 
equal  to  one-fifth  of  the  world's  entire  population!  Since  the  census  of  1881  there  has  been 
an  increase  of  28,000,000,  which  nearly  equals  the  entire  population  of  England  and  Wales. 
And  yet  the  rate  of  increase  is  only  about  10  per  cent.  As  above  stated,  the  population  has 
increased  under  English  rule,  as  might  have  been  expected,  but  the  apprehensions  expressed  by 
newspaper  writers  at  home  do  not  appear  to  be  shared  by  some  experts. 

The  Kolarians,  or  Kols  (e.g.  Santhals,  Kurkus,  Bhils,  etc.),  appear  to  be  the  oldest  race 
in  the  peninsula,  but  it  is  not  known  whether  they  were  really  the  true  aborigines.  They 
came  first,  however,  and  after  them  the  Dravidians  arrived.  Both  are  in  an  exceedingly  low 
state  of  culture.  It  is  perhaps  undesirable  to  separate  them  in  this  way,  for  anthropologists 
now  consider  the  Kols  to  be  Dravidian.  They  were  only  separated  by  the  linguists,  who  are 
inclined  to  attach  too  much  importance  to  language.  The  anthropologist  rightly  judges  by  the 
physical  type — shape  of  the  skull,  etc.  However,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  we  now  give 
a  brief  abstract  of  the  scheme  of  classification  given  by  Professor  Keane  in  his  "Asia,"  Vol.  II. 
in  Stanford's  "  Compendium  of  Travel  and  Geography."  The  divisions  of  the  Kolarians  and  the 
Tibeto-Burmans  are  chiefly  of  a  tribal  character;  those  of  the  Dravidians  and  all  the  Hindus 
are  based  on  languages : — 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV 


HINDUS  (Aryan  mixed  stock),  classified 
by  languages. — Kashmiri,  2|*;  Pun- 
jabi (Sikh,  Jat,  etc.),  17£;  Sindi,  2; 
Gujarati  and  Kachi,  10£;  Marathi  and 
Konkani,  19;  Hindi  and  Urdu  (North- 
West  Provinces,  Raj  pu tana,  and  Upper 
Bengal),  100;  Bengali,  41;  Uriya,  9; 
Assamese,  1£;  Nepali,  2. 

DRAVIDIANS  (classified  by  languages). — 
Telugu,  20;  Tamil,  16;  Kauarese,  94; 
Malayalim,  5£;  Tula,  9|;  Kodagu, 
about  ^;  Oraon,  about  f ;  Rajmahal, 
about  sV;  Khondi,  about  £;  Goudi,  H; 
Toda,  only  about  750  persons;  Kota, 
about  1,000  persons;  (?)  Singhalese,  If; 
(?)  Vedda,  supposed  to  number  about 
8,000  persons. 

KOLARIANS  (classified  by  tribes'). — 
Santhal,  If;  Munda,  f ;  Kharia,  Mal- 
Paharia,  Juang,  Gadaba,  Korwa,  Kurku, 
Mehto,  Savara,  and  Bhil,  altogether 
about  2. 

TIBETO-BURMANS  (Mongol  stock),  classi- 
fied by  tribes. — Ladakhi,  Champa, 
etc.,-^;  Garhwali,  etc.,  2*0  (?) ;  Magar, 
etc,  £;  Lepcha,  etc.,  &\?)> 


Photo  by  Doctors  Paul  and  Fritz  Sarasin,  Basle. 

A    VEDDA    MAN    (FULL-FACE). 


*The    figures    denote    millions     (approximately).       To    save    space    we    are    obliged    to    omit    the    geographical 
distributions,  but  the  names  themselves  in  some  cases  will  give  a  clue. 


i78 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Photo  by  Platt  <&  Co.} 


[Colombo. 


DEVIL-DANCERS,    CEYLON. 


Llopa,  etc.    (of  Bhutan),  f  (?);    Miri,  etc.,  -^  (?);   Kachari,  \;  Singpo  and  Kuki,  i(?); 
Mikir,  ^V;  Khasi  (of  the  Khasia  Hills),  ^  (?);  Naga,  about  £. 

V.  SUNDRIES  (making  a  total  of  only  about  2,000,000). — Shan,  Malay,  Negrito  (Andaman 
Islands),  Indo-Arab,  "Moormen"  (Arab),  Baluchi,  Afghan  (Afridi,  Waziri,  Yusafzai,  etc.), 
S  \vati,  etc.,  Persian,  Parsi,  Eurasian  (half-caste),  and  European,  about  536,000  persons. 

As  already  stated,  the  last  census,  of   1891,  gave  the  total  population  as  over  287,000,000. 

Speaking  of  the  Dravidiaus  and  Hindus,  Mr.  Keane  says:  "All  have  long  been  fused 
together  in  one  common  ethnical,  social,  and  religious  system,  while  still  separated  one  from 
another  mainly  by  their  different  languages,  all  derived  in  Europe  from  the  common  Latin 
stock,  in  India  either  from  a  common  Sanskrit  or  from  a  common  but  now  extinct  Dravidian 
mother- tongue."  It  is  hardly  necessary  after  this  to  point  out  that  India  presents  a  great 
diversity  of  tribes  and  races.  Some  are  in  a  high  state  of  culture;  others  can  only  be  spoken 
of  as  savages.  The  great  bulk  of  the  population  can  be  traced  to  two  main  sources — the 
Aryan  Hindus,  chiefly  in  the  northern  plains,  and  the  Dravidians  in  the  Deccan. 

Thrust  back  by  the  Aryans  from  the  plains  that  once  were  theirs,  the  aborigines  lie 
hidden  in  the  recesses  of  the  mountains,  like  the  fossilised  remains  found  by  geologists  in 
mountain  caves — only  these  "specimens"  are  not  dry  bones,  but  actual  living  people.  Thus 
India  is  a  great  museum  of  races,  in  which  we  can  study  man  in  various  stages  of  culture, 
some  very  low,  and  in  fact  interesting  survivals  from  prehistoric  times,  others  more  advanced 
in  the  scale  of  civilisation. 

All  are  fond  of  music  and  dancing.  Sometimes  they  form  a  ring  by  joining  hands,  and 
advance  in  step  towards  the  centre,  and  again  retire,  while  circling  round  and  round.  When 


INDIA 


179 


wearied  with  dancing  they  sing.  A  man  steps  out  of  the  crowd,  and  sings  a  verse  impromptu, 
a  woman  there  joins  him,  and  the  pair  chant  in  alternate  strains,  for  the  most  part  taunting 
each  other  with  personal  defects.  They  all  seem  prone  to  excessive  drinking. 

Nearly  all  the  aboriginal  hill  people  have  the  dark  skin,  flat  nose,  and  thick  lips  which  so 
easily  distinguish  them  from  the  Aryan  race,  and  they  mostly  dress  in  the  same  way.  For 
men  and  women  alike  a  cloth  wound  round  the  waist  constitutes  the  chief  article  of  attire. 
Necklaces  of  beads,  earrings  of  brass  and  iron,  brass  bracelets,  and  girdles  of  twisted  cords  find 
favour  in  the  eyes  of  young  men  and  women.  They  seldom  wear  any  covering  on  the  head, 
though  the  women  often  add  false  hair  to  their  own.  In  one  of  the  religious  hymns  of  the 
Gonds  their  god  alleges  as  one  cause  of  his  displeasure  against  the  first-created  Gouds  that 
they  did  not  bathe  for  six  months  together.  It  must  be  confessed  that,  in  this  respect,  the 
hill  tribes  of  to-day  do  not  belie  their  ancestry;  and  though  they  carry  their  scanty  costume 
with  a  certain  grace,  their  dirtiness,  and  the  tattoo-marks  on  their  faces,  arms,  and  thighs,  have 
a  repelling  effect.  For  the  most  part  light-hearted  and  easy-tempered,  when  once  their  shyness 
is  overcome  they  prove  very  communicative.  But  while  naturally  frank,  and  far  more  truthful 
than  the  Aryan  Hindus,  they  are  nevertheless  arrant  thieves,  though  their  pilfering  is  generally 
managed  in  the  simplest  and  most  maladroit  manner. 

It  may  be  said  generally  of  the  dark  aborigines  that  they  possess  no  written  records, 
being  ignorant  of  letters,  and  even  of  hieroglyphics.  The  only  works  of  their  forefathers  are 
the  rude  stone  circles,  upright  standing  stones,  and  the  mounds  beneath  which  they  were 
buried,  reminding  one  of  a  time  when  Europe  was  in  an  equally  primitive  stage  of  culture. 
The  knives  and  rough  flint  instruments  found  in  the  Narbada  Valley  speak  of  a  time  yet 
more  distant. 


By  permission  of  Herr  Karl  Hagenbeck. 


A    GROUP    OF   TAMIL   GIRLS. 


i8o 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


The  new-comers  from  the  north  prided 
themselves  on  their  fair  complexion.  Their 
earliest  poets,  three  or  perhaps  four  thousand 
years  ago,  praised  in  the  Rig- Veda  their 
gods,  who  "  subjected  the  black-skin  to  the 
Aryan  man,"  and  speak  of  those  who,  "  slaying 
the  Dasyus,  protected  the  Aryan  colour." 
The  Aryan  with  his  finely  formed  features 
loathed  the  ugly  and  perhaps  somewhat 
Negroid  faces  of  the  aborigines.  Yedic  hymns 
abound  in  scornful  epithets  for  the  primitive 
tribes,  such  as  "disturbers  of  sacrifices," 
"lawless,"  "without  rites,"  "without  gods." 
Having  been  driven  back  into  the  forests, 
they  were  painted  in  still  more  hideous 
shapes,  until  they  became  the  "monsters" 
and  "demons"  of  the  Aryan  poets.  Their 
name  "enemy"  thus  came  to  mean  "devil." 
Our  friend  Mr.  William  Crooke,  a  well- 
known  ethnologist,  has  formed  a  different 
idea  of  the  so-called  Aryan  invasion.  He 
thinks  "  it  was  never  apparently  an  invasion 
in  the  common  sense  of  the  word,  an  inroad 
of  a  fully  organised  nation,  overwhelming 
and  enslaving  the  indigenous  races,  such  as 
was,  for  instance,  that  of  the  Turkish  tribes 
into  Europe.  The  colonisation  of  Central 
Asia  by  the  Mongol  races  probably  took  place 

Photo  by  M.  Pia-rc  Petiti  [/'«/•;*•.          through  the  Indian    Peninsula,  and  this  was 

A  TAMIL  MAN  OF  CEYLON  (MIXED  TYPE).  followed  by  a  continuous  southward  movement 

of  the  Aryans  which  was  only  part  of  that  great  series  of  emigrations  which  went  on  continuously 
during  prehistoric  times.  Their  incoming  may  have  been  gradual  and  spread  over  vast  eras  of 
time;  it  may  have  taken  the  shape  of  successive  waves  of  colonists,  never  very  numerous,  and 
establishing  their  superiority  more  by  the  influence  of  their  higher  culture  than  by  actual  brute 
force.  In  some  places  they  may  have  become  real  over-lords  of  the  races  which  they  found  in 
the  country;  in  the  other  parts  the  conquered  may  have  absorbed  their  conquerors.  This  theory 
would  in  a  measure  account  for  some  of  the  most  difficult  problems  in  the  ethnology  of  Upper 
India."  He  goes  on  to  point  out  that  the  Aryans  did  not,  as  has  previously  been  supposed, 
occupy  the  fertile  plains  and  rich  alluvial  valleys,  because  they  were  covered  with  impenetrable 
forests,  swarming  with  dangerous  beasts,  and  full  of  malaria.  Eather  they  took  the  course  of 
the  lower  hills  that  flank  the  river  valleys.  His  view  is  not  that  the  Dravidians  were  driven 
into  the  mountains  by  the  Aryans,  but  that  the  former  were  always  living  among  the 
mountains  where  we  find  them. 


HINDU    CASTES. 

THE  dark  aborigines  of  India,  Kolarians  and  Dravidians,  were  undoubtedly  far  more  numerous 
than  their  fair  Aryan  conquerors,  and  the  latter  would  certainly  have  been  absorbed  by  them 
had  not  the  system  of  caste  been  invented.  Accordingly,  by  the  laws  of  Manu,  marriage  with 
the  dark  races  was  strictly  forbidden,  and  a  definite  rank  was  assigned  to  each  shade  of  colour 
which  had  been  already  developed.  Caste  therefore  originally  meant  colour,  and  by  its  means 
the  intruding  Aryans  maintained  their  supremacy.  But  already  a  certain  amount  of  fusion 


P/ioto  by  Messrs.   W.  L.  H.  Skeen  &  Co.} 


A   TAMIL   GIRL. 


182 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


had  taken  place.  The  subject  is  too  compli- 
cated for  discussion  in  these  pages,  but  it  may 
be  pointed  out  that  caste,  as  now  known  in 
India,  is  the  product  of  several  factors — viz. 
race,  occupation,  and  religion.  The  four 
original  castes  are  the  priests  (Bralimans)\ 
the  warriors  (Kshatriyas)\  citizens,  traders, 
and  agriculturists  (Vaisliyas)\  and  the  menials 
(Sndras).  These,  however,  have  been  under- 
going a  continual  subdivision,  until  now  there 
are  2,500  main  divisions.  Some  castes  are  of 
political  origin.  Of  this  the  most  striking 
example  is  to  be  met  with  in  the  hill  tracts 
of  the  Punjab,  where  the  rajah  is  the  fountain 
of  honour,  and  by  his  word  creates,  enlarges,  or 
restricts  the  castes  of  the  people  in  his  realm. 

As  a  rule  the  process  is  confined  to  the 
two  upper  classes  of  Brahman  and  Rajput. 
Lower  castes  may  gradually  acquire  a  higher 
caste.  In  the  Deccan  a  landholder  who  be- 
comes rich  may  rise  to  a  higher  caste,  but 
as  a  rule  the  process  is  the  other  way,  and 
in  the  direction  of  degradation.  The  barriers 
of  caste  are  supposed  to  be  immutable,  but 
it  is  plain  that  the  people  contrive  to  leap 
over  them  and  to  creep  under  them. 

Mention  must  also  be  made  of  the 
Pariahs,  or  outcasts.  The  term  originally 
meant  "  hillmen,"  a  fact  which  throws  no  small 
light  on  the  institution.  And  so  the  Pariahs 
were  the  independent  highlanders  who  were  excluded  from  all  social  privileges.  One  is 
reminded  by  this  of  the  absurd  contempt  with  which  the  famous  Dr.  Johnson  spoke  of  the 
Scotch  highlanders;  in  his  narrow  view  they  were  simply  pariahs  I  These  hill  people  may 
be  regarded  as  being  of  the  aboriginal  elements  of  a  prehistoric  period.  Caste,  again,  has 
been  somewhat  affected  by  the  spreading  of  Mohammedanism.  But  the  sacerdotal  caste 
(Brahmans)  have  survived  this  and  other  changes,  often  retaining  the  noble  cast  of  countenance 
which  is  characteristic  of  the  race. 

The  following  table  shows  at  a  glance  the  chief  castes  and  tribes: — 


Photo  by  M.  Pierre  Petit] 

DEVIL-DANCERS,    CEYLON. 


I.  Agricultural. 

Military  and  dominant,  e.g.  Rajputs. 
Other  cultivators. 
Field  labourers. 
II.  Pastoral. 

Cattle-grazers,  shepherds,  etc. 
HI.  Forest  Tribes  (very  numerous). 

Santhals,   Kols/Gonds,    Bhils,    Todas,    Kotas 
Irulas,  Khasis,  Kukis,  Lushais,  Chins,  an 
others. 
IV.     Fishers. 

Kahars,  Mallahs,  etc. 
V.  Artisans. 

Carpenters,  masons,  potters,  etc. 
VI.  Personal  Service,  Food,  etc. 

Barbers,  servants,  butchers,  washerwomen. 


VII.   Leather-workers  and  Lower  Village  Menials. 
VIII.  Traders. 
IX.  Professionals. 

Priests,  devotees,  etc. 
Temple  servants,  writers. 
X.  Arts,  etc. 

Astrologers,  singers,  dancers,  actors. 
XI.   Carriers. 
XII.    Vagrants. 

Knife-grinders,  mat-  and  cane-workers, 
hunters  and  fowlers,  jugglers  and 
acrobats. 

XIII.  Indefinite  Indian  Castes. 

XIV.  Native  Christians. 

Then    follow    Burmese,    Western    Asiatics,    Eurasians, 
Europeans,  and  Africans. 


INDIA 


183 


THE    WARRIOR   OR   KSHATRIYA   CASTE. 

THE  true  Kshatriya,  when  engaged  in  fighting  an  enemy,  should  give  up  all  desire  to  live. 
Far  be  it  from  him  to  think  of  retreating  or  taking  to  flight!  On  the  contrary,  let  him  advance 
bravely,  resolved  to  conquer  or  to  die!  The  happiest  death  for  a  Kshatriya,  the  one  he 
should  wish  for  most,  is  to  die  sword  in  hand,  fighting.  It  procures  for  him  the  inestimable 
happiness  of  being  admitted  to  Swarga  (Paradise).  Boundless  ambition  is  the  highest  virtue 
a  Kshatriya  can  possess.  However  vast  his  possessions  may  be  already,  he  should  never  say 
that  he  has  enough.  All  his  thoughts  should  tend  to  enlarging  and  improving  his  territories 
and  to  making  war  on  neighbouring  princes,  with  a  view  to  appropriating  their  possessions  by 
main  force.  He  should  show  faith  and  piety  towards  the  gods,  and  should  respect  Brahmans 
(a  caste  .we  shall  speak  of  later  on),  placing  the  utmost  confidence  in  them  and  loading  them 
with  gifts.  Truth  and  justice  are  the  foundation  on  Avhich  all  his  actions  should  be  based. 

In  a  work  like  the  present  it  would  be  quite  impossible  to  describe,  however  briefly,  all 
the  principal  races  and  tribes  and  castes  of  the  peninsula  with  its  teeming  population.  We 
therefore  have  selected  a  few,  especially  those  of  which  we  procured  the  best  photographs. 
These  we  shall  now  deal  with  as  far  as  space  permits.  The  reader  should  first  consult  the 
brief  scheme  of  classification  on  page  177. 

THE   KOLS. 

THE  Kols,  or  Kolarians,  formerly  overspread  the  plains  of  Bengal,  but  are  now  to  be  found 
only  in  the  hill  and  jungle  tracts  between  Upper  and  Lower  Bengal,  the  Nagpur  Plateau, 
and  generally  from  the  Ganges  to  about  18°  N.  latitude.  According  to  Colonel  Dalton,  they 
show  much  variety,  and  there  may  have  been  a  good  deal  of  fusion  with  the  Aryan  conquerors. 


Photo  by  Mexsrs.  Bourne  &  Shepherd] 


A   GROUP   OF   KOLS. 


184 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


la  colour  they  vary  greatly,  the  copper  tints  being  most  common.  The  hair  is  black  and 
straight  or  wavy,  as  everywhere  in  India.  They  carry  themselves  very  well.  Many  have  high 
noses  and  oval  faces,  and  some  of  the  young  girls  have  delicate  and  regular  features,  finely 
chiselled  straight  noses,  and  perfectly  formed  mouths  and  chins.  However,  the  eyes  (dark 
brown)  are  seldom  so  large,  so  bright,  and  so  gazelle-like  as  those  of  pure  Hindu  maidens. 
There  are  also  traces  of  some  fusion  with  the  Mongols  of  the  North  (see  illustrations  on 
pages  183  and  185).  The  Mirzapur  Kols  appear  to  have  lost  all  recollection  of  the  sun-god 
revered  by  the  Mundas  of  Bengal.  Still,  they  venerate  the  sun.  The  Kols  worship  demons 
and  spirits,  whom  they  greatly  fear,  and  the  souls  of  the  dead. 

THE  JUANGS   OF   OEISSA. 

IN  the  Tributary  States  of  Orissa  there  is  a  poor  tribe  of  Juangs  (also  Kolarian),  or  Patuas 
(literally  the  "leaf-wearers"),  whose  women  wear  no  clothes,  but  only  a  few  strings  of  beads 
round  the  waist,  and  a  bunch  of  leaves  tied  in  front  and  behind.  Her  Majesty's  Government, 
shocked  at  this  state  of  things,  gave  orders  in  1871  that  those  under  British  influence  should 
be  clothed.  The  English  officer  therefore  called  the  tribe  together,  made  a  speech  on  the 
subject  of  clothes,  and  then  handed  out  strips  of  cotton  for  the  women  to  put  on!  Obediently 
they  passed  before  him  in  single  file,  to  the  number  of  1,900,  made  obeisance  as  a  sign  of 
their  submission,  and  were  afterwards  marked  on  the  forehead  with  vermilion.  But  this  enforced 
submission  to  the  great  Mrs.  Grundy  was  not  a  success,  for  before  long  many  of  the  Juang 
women  had  gone  back  to  their  leaves.  These  people,  until  qiiite  lately,  had  no  knowledge  of 
metals,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  relic  from  the  Stone  Age.  An  officer  who  knew  them  well 
said  their  huts  were  the  smallest  ever  deliberately  constructed  as  dwellings.  The  head  of  the 
family  and  all  the  females  huddle  together  in  one  hut  about  6  feet  by  8  feet  in  area.  The 
boys  and  young  men  live  in  a  separate  building. 

THE   BHILS. 

THE   Bhils   (also   Kolarian)   are   of   small   stature,  slender,  and   very  dark,  but  possessing  great 

agility  and  strength.  Robbery 
and  war  are  their  delight.  As 
thieves  they  still  keep  their 
old  reputation  for  adroitness. 
Many  tales  are  told  illustrating 
their  wonderful  skill  in  this 
art,  so  widely  practised  in  India. 
They  have  been  known  to  steal 
the  blanket  from  under  a 
sleeping  man,  although  warned 
that  the  attempt  would  be 
made!  Naked  and  oiled  all 
over,  they  move  about  without 
making  any  noise,  and  it  is 
no  easy  matter  to  lay  hold  of 
them.  They  are  very  clever  at 
hiding,  and  cases  are  on  record 
in  which  they  have  escaped 
capture  when  pursued  by  adopt- 
ing what  naturalists  call  "  pro- 
tective mimicry."  Their  plan 
when  thus  pressed  is  to  throw 
their  black  sinewy  limbs  into 
such  attitudes  that  they  are 


From  "  The  Primitive  Tribes  of  t 

Under- Secretary  of  State  for  India) 


by  J.  W.  Bretks  (by  permission  of  ike 


TWO  IRULAS  (FROM  THE  LEFT),  TWO  BADAGAS,  TWO  TODAS,  TWO  KOTAS, 

AND   TWO   KURUMBAS. 


i86 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Photu  by  Mi 


E.  Thurttou,  Madron  Mttseu 
TWO   TOD  A   GIRLS. 


mistaken  for  the  scorched  aud  burned  stumps 
of  trees,  so  often  to  be  met  with  in  India 
on  account  of  forest  fires.  Sir  James  Outram 
won  many  of  them  over  to  comparative  civili- 
sation; and  there  are  now  two  regiments 
of  Bhils  in  the  native  army.  Their  huts  in 
the  forest  are  made  of  boughs  and  sticks 
thatched  and  wattled  with  long  grass.  They 
are  fearful  of  evil  omens,  and  worship  trees, 
stones,  etc.  They  number  900,000.. 

THE   GONDS. 

THE  domain  of  the  Gonds,  who  are  Dravidian, 
is  in  the  highlands  north  of  the  Deccan,  and 
called  after  them  Gondwana.  Many  of  them 
were  formerly  employed  in  the  coal-pits  of 
the  Narbada  Valley.  According  to  Mr.  Hislop, 
they  are  darker  than  most  of  the  other 
aboriginal  races,  are  of  average  height,  and 
have  well-proportioned  bodies,  but  rather  ugly 
features.  They  have  a  somewhat  round  head, 
wide  mouth  and  wide  nostrils,  thick  lips,  and 
straight  black  hair,  with  only  a  scanty  beard. 
It  is  quite  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  any  of 
them  have  woolly  hair,  like  a  Negro.  On 

the  contrary,  both  hair  and  features  are  decidedly  Mongolian'.  Captain  Forsyth  says  the  women 
differ  among  themselves  more  than  the  men:  in  the  opener  parts  of  the  country,  near  the 
plains,  they  are  often  great  robust  creatures;  but  in  the  interior  bevies  of  Gond  women  may 
be  seen  who  are  more  like  monkeys  than  human  beings.  The  features  of  all  are  strongly 
marked  and  coarse.  As  soon  as  their  short  youth  is  over,  they  all  pass  at  once  into  a  hideous 
old  age.  This  is  not  surprising,  for  they  lead  very  hard  lives,  sharing  in  nearly  all  the  men's 
labours.  They  dress  decently  enough  in  a  short  petticoat  often  dyed  blue,  tucked  in  between 
the  legs,  so  as  to  leave  them  naked  to  the  thigh;  a  mantle  of  white  cotton  covers  the  upper 
part  of  the  body.  They  have  their  legs  elaborately  tattooed.  Their  number  appears  to  be 
about  124,000. 

THE   TODAS. 

THE  Todas  dwell  quite  in  the  south  in  scattered  hamlets  on  the  slopes  of  tlie  Nilgiri  Hills,  or 
"Blue  Hills."  They  are  a  tall,  sturdy  race,  with  regular  features,  and  of  a  dark  chocolate 
colour.  The  nose  is  aquiline,  the  lips  thick,  aud  they  are  very  hairy,  a  feature  which  at 
once  distinguishes  them  from  the  Aryan  Hindus  and  reminds  one  of  the  Australians.  The 
general  contour  of  the  head  and  cast  of  countenance  are  rather  such  as  we  are  accustomed 
to  associate  with  the  ancient  Eoman.  Mr.  William  Crooke,  however,  considers  them  to  be 
probably  the  earliest  race  in  India,  and  retaining  certain  Negrito  characteristics.  Their  brown 
eyes  are  wonderfully  quick  and  bright,  full  of  intelligence,  often  melancholy  and  gentle.  In 
some  instances  the  physiognomy  appears  rather  Jewish;  hence  they  have  been  associated  by 
some  writers  with  the  lost  tribes  of  Israel.  These  people  are  essentially  herdsmen  (as  their 
[Tamil]  name  implies),  and  herdsmen  they  have  been  for  untold  ages.  liaised  high  above  the 
torrid  plains  of  India,  they  inhabit  a  sort  of  tropical  Switzerland.  Secluded  amongst  their 
pastures,  taking  pleasure  only  in  their'  own  customs,  they  hold  aloof  from  all  foreign  influences. 
The  tone  of  voice  is  kind  and  grave,  but  with  the  women  solemnity  is  replaced  by  a 


i88 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


certain  playfulness.  It  is 
impossible  not  to  be 
struck  by  the  taste  and 
simplicity  of  their  cos- 
tume. Draped  in  a  sort 
of  toga,  with  one  arm 
and  thigh  uncovered,  they 
have  quite  the  "grand 
air  " ;  but  it  is  a  pity  they 
do  not  wash  themselves. 
Mr.  J.  W.  Breeks  says: 
"  We  could  not  help 
liking  them.  They  were 
extremely  amused  at  our 
British  idiosyncrasies,  and 
laughed  at  them  un- 
restrainedly, not  consider- 
ing themselves  in  any 
way  our  inferiors."  Their 
hearty  good- humour  and 
free,  jovial  manners  are 
no  less  pleasing  than 
their  politeness,  affability, 
and  courtesy.  Dr.  Shortt, 
writing  in  1868,  made 
the  sweeping  assertion 
that  most  of  the  women 
have  been  debauched  by 
Europeans,  who  have  in- 
troduced diseases  to  which 
these  innocent  tribes  were  once  perfect  strangers,  but  which  are  no  less  surely  sapping  their 
once  hardy  and  vigorous  constitutions.  This,  however,  is  untrue.  They  are  sadly  addicted 
to  strong  drink,  and  will  drink  neat  brandy  out  of  a  mug. 

The  women  are  treated  with  respect,  and  enjoy  a  large  amount  of  freedom.  They  tend 
children,  cook  the  family  meals,  bring  water  from  the  spring,  and  keep  the  house  in  order — 
such  as  it  is.  The  men  tend  the  cattle  and  do  most  of  the  outdoor  work.  They  are  a  quiet, 
undemonstrative,  and  very  domestic  people.  The  entire  family,  down  to  the  last  cousin,  are 
regarded  as  one  household.  The  men  maintain  their  authority  sensibly  and  without  tyranny. 
But  sometimes  a.  woman  of  superior  intelligence  may  rule  her  husband.  The  women  mark,  or 
tattoo,  portions  of  the  body — namely,  the  arms,  chest,  and  legs;  and  they  wear  a  heavy  metal 
ring  on  the  arm.  Though  their  intellect  is  of  a  very  inferior  order,  and  they  possess  but 
little  force  of  character,  yet  what  they  do  know  they  know  well.  They  may  be  said  to  be 
even  intelligent  within  certain  narrow  limits. 

The  odorous  abode  of  the  Todas  is  called  a  mand  (village,  or  hamlet),  which  is  composed 
of  huts  (see  illustration  on  page  187),  dairy,  and  cattle-pen.  Each  mand  usually  comprises 
about  five  buildings,  or  huts,  three  of  which  are  used  as  dwellings.  These  are  usually 
10  feet  high,  18  feet  long,  and  9  feet  broad.  The  very  small  entrance,  only  18  inches 
wide,  is  not  provided  with  any  door  or  gate,  but  is  closed  by  a  wooden  plank,  which  forms 
a  sort  of  sliding-door.  To  enter,  one  has  to  go  down  on  all-fours,  arid  even  then  much 
wriggling  is  necessary.  The  hut  is  built  of  bamboos  closely  laid  together,  and  the  roof  is 
thatch;  only  in  the  middle  is  the  height  sufficient  to  enable  a  tall  man  to  walk  about 
comfortably.  On  one  side  there  is  a  platform  where  the  family  sleep.  Each  hut  is  surrounded 


From  "  The  Primitive  TrUim  of  the  Xil< 
the  Under-Secretury  of  State  for  Indi 


KOTA    WOMEN,    MAKING    POTS. 


INDIA 


189 


by  a  wall  of  loose  stones.  The  dairy  is  situated  at  some  distance  from  the  inhabited  huts, 
and  strangers  never  attempt  to  approacli  too  near,  for  fear  of  incurring  the  ill-will  of  the  god 
or  spirit  believed  to  preside  therein.  The  herd  of  buffaloes  retreats  at  night  to  a  circular 
enclosure  with  a  wall  of  loose  stones.  The  writer  is  indebted  to  Mr.  R.  Lydekker,  F.R.S.,  who 
is  arranging  the  Anthropological  Collection  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  History,  for  kindly 
lending  the  photograph  of  two  Toda  girls  on  page  186.  It  is  by  Mr.  E.  Thurston. 


THE   KOTAS. 

PROBABLY  the  Todas  and  the  Kotas  lived  near  to  each  other  before  the  latter  settled  on  the 
Nilgiri  Hills.  The  Kotas  number  about  1,200.  Each  village  consists  of  from  thirty  to  sixty 
huts,  arranged  in  rows  along  the  street.  There  is  no  caste;  the  people  are  divided  according 
to  the  streets  in  which  they  live;  people  belonging  to  the  same  street  may  not  marry.  They 
are,  unfortunately,  very  fond  of  intoxicating  liquors.  They  are  universally  looked  down  upon  as 
unclean  feeders  and  eaters  of  carrion,  a  custom  which  is  to  them  no  more  repulsive  than 
eating  "high"  game  is  to  ourselves.  However,  they  make  excellent  artisans.  The  Kota 
women  have  none  of  the  fearlessness  and  friendliness  of  the  Todas,  and  on  the  approach  of  a 
European  to  their  domain  bolt  out  of  sight,  like  frightened  rabbits  in  a  warren,  and  hide 
within  the  inmost  recesses  of  their  huts.  As  a  rule  they  are  clad  in  filthy  dirty  clothes,  all 
tattered  and  torn,  and  frequently  not  reaching  nearly  as  low  as  the  knees.  They  fetch  water, 
collect  firewood,  and  make  baskets  and  earthen  pots.  They  worship  rude  images  of  wood  or 
stone,  a  rock,  or  a  tree  in  some  secluded  place.  Both  the  Todas  and  Kotas  have  long 
(dolichocephalic)  heads. 


for  India). 


KURUMBAS,    WITH   HOUSE. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


THE   KURUMBAS. 

THE  picture  drawn  by  Mr.  King  in  his  "  Aboriginal  Tribes  of  the  Nilgiris"  (1876)  is  not  a 
pleasant  one.  Their  food  consisted  then  of  wild  roots  and  berries,  or  grain  soaked  in  water, 
with  occasionally  a  porcupine  or  a  polecat.  Their  dwellings  were  generally  a  few  branches 
piled  up  together  like  heaps  of  dead  brushwood  in  a  plantation,  often  simply  holes  or  clefts 
among  the  rocks.  No  such  ceremony  as  marriage  existed  among  these  people,  who  lived 
together  like  the  brute  creation.  Though  they  have  somewhat  improved  since  those  days, 
and  work  on  planters'  estates  for  regular  wages,  their  appearance  even  now  is  wretched.  They 
are  short  and  ill-made,  with  bleared  eyes,  a  rather  wide  mouth,  and  often  projecting  teeth. 
Spare  to  leanness,  there  is  also  a  total  absence  of  any  apparent  muscle,  and  the  arms  and  legs 
are  as  much  like  black  sticks  as  human  limbs.  The  illustration  of  Kurumbas  on  page  189 
is  from  a  photograph  in  Breeks'  "Primitive  Tribes  of  the  Nilagiris,"  published  by  the  Indian 
Government  at  Calcutta,  and  the  writer  is  indebted  to  the  Under-Secretary  of  State  for  India 
for  permission  to  reproduce  this  photograph  as  well  as  those  on  pages  184  and  188. 

THE   SANTHALS. 

AMONG  aborigines  who  have  progressed  to  a  higher  stage  of  civilisation  are  the  Santhals. 
They  still  live  in  villages  in  the  jungles  or  among  the  mountains  of  Lower  Bengal.  Although 
still  clinging  more  or  less  to  their  forests  and  keeping  up  the  customs  of  a  hunting  forest 
tribe,  yet  they  have  learned  the  use  of  the  plough,  and  make  skilful  husbandmen. 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Frith  &  Co.]  [  If,  ii/iu, . 

ISCARDS,    SOLDIERS    OF   THE    MAHARAJAH    OF    KASHMIR. 


JUNGLE   FOLK. 

MANY  of  the  Dravidian  tribes  and  castes  live 
in  the  jungles,  and  thus  acquire  a  knowledge 
of  the  wild  animals  therein  which  to  us 
seems  astounding,  and  their  faculty  of  ob- 
servation has  been  very  highly  developed. 
Speaking  of  this,  our  friend  Mr.  William 
Crooke,  whose  researches  in  Indian  ethnology 
are  well  known,  says:  "One  thing  he  [the 
jungle-dweller]  does  acquire  by  this  course 
of  life  is  a  marvellous  insight  into  Nature 
and  her  secrets.  His  eyesight  or  power  of 
hearing  is  not,  I  think,  by  nature  better 
than  ours,  but  he  will  hear  or  see  a  tiger 
creeping  down  a  ravine  long  before  the 
English  sportsman  will.  Every  sound  in  the 
forest  has  a  meaning  for  him — the  grunt  of 
the  baboon  as  the  tiger  comes  beneath  his 
tree,  the  hoarse  alarm  bark  of  the  stag. 
From  the  way  the  vultures  hover  in  the  air 
he  wilt  tell  whether  the  tiger  has  finished 
his  meal  or  is  still  tearing  the  carcase.  Every 
footmark,  a  displaced  pebble,  a  broken  grass- 
stalk,  will  tell  him  something — what  beast 
has  passed  there,  and  how  long  ago.  We  of 
late  hours  and  crowded  rooms  and  artificial 
light  look  upon  such  powers  as  almost  a 
miracle;  but  it  is  really  only  the  result  of 


INDIA 


191 


the  fact  that  he  has  thoroughly  adapted  himself  to  his  environment,  and  this  he  must  do  or 
starve"  (Journal  of  the  Anthropological  Institute,  New  Series,  Vol.  I.,  p.  223). 

THE   KHOXDS. 

AXOTHER  Dravidian  race  is  that  of  the  Khouds.  In  old  days  they  practised  human  sacrifice, 
but  this  custom  has  been  suppressed.  They  also  used  to  kill  the  baby-girls,  saying  that  they 
were  too  poor  to  support  useless  children.  In  1835  they  became  subject  to  English  rule;  their 
stock  of  human  victims  was  delivered  up,  and  they  had  to  be  content  with  sacrificing  goats 
and  buffaloes.  They  have  a  strange  belief  that  certain  persons  can  change  themselves  into 
tigers.  General  Campbell,  when  in  their  country,  saw  fourteen  of  their  great  wooden  elephant- 
figures  on  which  human  victims  were  offered,  tied  on  to  the  trunk  and  hacked  to  pieces 
while  the  whole  image  was  spun  round.  He  ordered  these  images  to  be  destroyed;  but  it 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Frith  &  Co.] 


[Beigate. 


NAUTCH-GIRLS    OF    KASHMIR. 


was  no  easy  matter  to  overthrow  a  practice  so  deeply  rooted,  which  had  existed  from  time 
immemorial.  They  even  believed  that  he  wanted  to  sacrifice  the  very  victims  whom  he 
released,  in  order  to  bring  back  water  into  a  certain  large  tank  made  for  his  elephants!  One 
day  at  this  very  place  the  English  officer  was  told  that  a  human  victim  was  acu tally  being 
offered  up.  It  was  a  handsome  girl  of  about  fifteen  years  of  age.  Instantly,  therefore,  he  set 
off  with  a  large  party.  On  arrival  they  saw  the  aged  priest  ready  to  give  the  signal,  and  the 
onlookers  mad  with  excitement.  He  came  to  the  rescue  and  demanded  the  girl's  release, 
which  was  granted — but  only  from  motives  of  fear.  Xo  sooner  had  the  soldiers  gone  out  of 
sight  than  the  Khonds  broke  out  into  loud  murmurings.  They  would  not  be  disappointed; 
and  so,  at  the  suggestion  of  one  of  the  party,  they  sacrificed  the  aged  priest  himself,  because, 
being  seventy  years  old,  he  could  be  of  no  further  use!  And  so  he  was  forthwith  tied  on  to 
the  wooden  elephant-image  and  cut  to  pieces. 

They  kidnapped  their  victims  from  the  plains,  and  a  thriving  Khond  village  usually  kept 
a  small   stock   in   reserve    "to   meet   sudden   demands   for   atonement."      The   victim,  on   being 


192 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


brought  to  the  hamlet,  was  welcomed  at 
every  threshold,  daintily  fed,  and  kindly 
treated  till  the  fatal  day  arrived.  He  was 
then  solemnly  sacrificed  to  the  earth-god, 
the  people  shouting  in  his  or  her  dying 
ears,  "We  bought  you  with  a  price;  no 
sin  rests  with  us."  His  flesh  and  blood 
were  distributed  among  the  village  lands. 

Among  these  people  the  custom  of 
"  marriage  by  capture "  prevails.  The 
young  man  snatches  up  his  bride,  while 
her  friends  pretend  to  pursue  them.  How- 
ever, his  friends  come  to  the  rescue  and 
prevent  her  recapture.  As  soon  as  his  own 
village  is  reached  he  is  safe,  and  the  young 
couple  settle  down  to  married  life. 

In  spite  of  the  cruel  human  sacrifices 
above  referred  to,  which  of  course  have  a 
religious  aspect,  the  Khonds  have  good 
points  in  their  favour.  According  to  Captain 
Macphersqn,  their  nine  cardinal  sins  are: 
to  refuse  hospitality;  to  break  an  oath  or 
promise;  to  speak  falsely,  except  to  save  a 
guest;  to  break  the  pledge  of  friendship; 
to  break  an  old  law  or  custom;  to  commit 
incest;  to  contract  debts,  the  payment  of 
which  is  ruinous  to  the  man's  tribe,  they 
being  responsible;  to  skulk  in  time  of 
war;  to  divulge  a  public  secret.  On  the 

other  hand,    their  three   chief   virtues    are:    to    kill    a   foe   in   public  battle;    to  die  in   public 
battle;  and  to  be  a  priest. 


Photo  bij  Mturt,  Bourne  <&  Shepherd] 

A    PARSI   GIRL. 


[Bombay. 


THE   JATS   AXD   RAJPUTS. 

AMONG  the  people  of  the "  Punjab  the  Jats  and  Rajputs  come  first,  they  being  the  most 
numerous.  Both  may  perhaps  belong  to  the  same  stock,  although  differing  in  appearance. 
They  are  considered  by  Sir  J.  B.  Lyall,  late  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  Punjab,  to  be  directly 
descended  from  the  military  clans  which  the  Indian  chiefs  led  against  Alexander  the  Great 
when  he  invaded  .the  Punjab  in  325  B.C.,  but  the  latest  view  is  that  they  came  from 
Central  Asia.  The  Greek  historians  of  that  time  described  these  people  as  eminently  brave  in 
war,  tall,  and  graceful.  This  is.  still  true  of  them.  In  the  Sikh  wars  they  opposed  us  in 
the  hardest  battles  ever  fought  in  India;  and  since  then  they  have  fought  side  by  side 
with  British  soldiers.  Among  the  Jats.  those  who  are  Mohammedan  are  usually  not  so  fond 
of  fighting  as  the  Hindu  Jats;  the  most  martial  of  them  are  those  living  in  the  centre  of  the 
Punjab  and  belonging  to  the  Sikh  religion.  .It  was  the  Jats  who  in  the  eighteenth  century 
•gradually  overturned  the  Mohammedan  government  of  the  Punjab  ("India,"  British  Empire 
Series).  Professor  Keane,  however,  accepts  Mr.  William  Crooke's  view  that  they  represent  an 
invasion  of  the  Yu-cchi  from  Central  Asia. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

INDIA  (continued}:  WOLF-REARED  CHILDREN,  KASHMIRIS,  P ARSIS,  KHASIS: 
RELIGION  IN  INDIA:  ARYAN  THEOLOGY,  LITERATURE,  ETC.— AFGHAN- 
ISTAN AND  BALUCHISTAN. 


WOLF-REARED    CHILDREN. 

READERS  of  Mr.  Kipling's  most  fascinating  "Jungle-Books"  will  possibly  not  be  altogether 
surprised  to  learn  that  a  good  deal  of  valuable  and  trustworthy  evidence  has  been  collected 
to  establish  the  fact,  so  long  denied  as  unworthy  of  credence,  that  human  babes  have  been 
carried  off  and  nurtured  by 
wolves.  Tradition,  as  we  all 
know,  has  said  so  for  ages, 
ever  since  the  story  of 
Romulus  and  Remus.  But 
it  has  been  the  fashion 
till  lately  to  reject  most 
traditions.  However,  a  re- 
action in  their  favour  has  at 
length  taken  place.  In  a 
valuable  paper  entitled 
"Jungle  Life  in  India,"  Mr. 
V.  Ball,  of  the  Indian  Geo- 
logical Survey,  brings  together 
the  evidence  which  has  been 
collected.  It  is  published  in 
The  Journal  of  the  Anthro- 
pological Institute,  Vol.  IX., 
page  466.  The  following  is 
the  text  of  a  letter  he 
received  from  a  correspon- 
dent:— 

"DEAR  SIR,— 

"  I  see  your  name 
mentioned  in  the  newspapers 
as  one  who  leans  to  the 
belief  that  children  have  been 
nourished  by  wolves.  And 
as  there  are  sceptics  who  will 
have  it  that  you  labour  under 
a  delusion,  it  may  be  in- 
teresting to  you  to  learn  photo  by  Messrs_  Boume  &  Shepherd} 
a  few  particulars  about  a  PAHARIS  (HILL  WOMEN). 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Photo  by  Mr.  If. 

DANCING-MEN   AT  MONGKNEM    DANCE,    KHASIA    HILLS. 


wolf-mau  who  was  for  many 
years  living  in  this  city.  He 
was  sent  in  by  Colonel  Slee- 
man,  and  a  Mohammedan 
took  charge  of  him.  The 
Mutiny  occurring,  this  pro- 
tector disappeared,  and  then 
the  poor  fellow  came  under 
my  notice.  At  the  time  he 
might  have  been  about  twenty 
years  of  age.  I  took  a  little 
interest  in  him  and  tried  to 
make  him  work,  but  found 
that  it  was  not  possible  to 
keep  him  at  it.  I  tried  him 
with  food  from  the  table, 
and  he  was  guided  by  smell, 
rejecting  such  portions  as  did 
not  please  him.  His  recog- 
nition Avas  a  grunt.  The 
hands  were  bent  back,  but 
were  not  stiff;  and  when 
taking  anything  these  retained 
the  position  instead  of  clutch- 
ing. He  walked  on  the  front 
portion  of  the  foot,  the  heels 

being  slightly  raised;    and  he  walked  with  his  knees  bent;    in  fact,   one  could  readily  suppose 

that    he    had    as    a    child    pro- 
gressed  in   a   stooping   position, 

using  both  hands  and  feet.     He 

lived  in  a  corner,  with  his  legs 

brought    up    to    his    chin,    and 

placed  his  food   under  anything 

that  he   might  have  to  lie  on, 

straw   or   old   bedding.     Clothes 

he    would    not    wear,    but    was 

induced   to   keep    on    the   usual 

strip,  and  this  probably  because 

he    had     been     beaten     at    first 

and   made   to  comply  with  cus- 
toms so  far.      The  man  is  now 

dead.      I  cannot  vouch  that  he 

had  been   nourished  by  a  wolf, 

but    the    natives    of    the    city 

believed     that     he     had     been 

so  brought   up,   etc.,   etc.      He 

had     not     learned      to     speak; 

he  simply  grunted    and  looked 

at    persons     askant,     with     the 

cunning,    silly    leer    above    re- 
ferred to.  Photo  by  Mr  u  z  Dan.ah 

Yours,  etc.  DANCING-GIRLS  AT  MONGKNEM  DANCE,  KHASIA  HILLS. 


[Seigate. 


196 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Photo  by  M< 


it  Shepherd} 
A   BRAHMAN   AT   PRAYERS. 


The  subject  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  Professor  Max  Miiller,  who 
in  the  pages  of  The  Academy  pointed 
out  the  importance  of  the  subject, 
and  quoted  a  selection  from  the 
recorded  cases  of  wolf-reared  children. 
At  the  same  time  he  strongly  urged 
upon  sportsmen,  naturalists,  and  dis- 
trict officials  the  desirability  of 
carefully  investigating  on  the  spot 
the  probability  and  possibility  of 
such  cases  being  true. 

The  story  of  Romulus  and  Remus 
is  not  by  any  means  singular.  There 
are  many  other  gods  and  heroes  of 
antiquity  who  are  stated  to  have 
been  suckled  by  wolves,  and  whose 
histories  are  regarded  as  AV  holly 
mythical  in  consequence  of  the 
presence  of  this  element.  If  the 
case  of  a  child  being  suckled  and 
reared  by  Avolves  can  be  established 
as  a  physical  possibility  by  a  single 
well-authenticated  case  in  India,  such 

histories  will  assume  a  totally  neAV  aspect,  and  will  have  a  chance  of  being  accepted  in  their 
entirety.  Want  of  space  alone  prevents  us  from  giving  other  examples,  but  the  reader  will 
find  them  in  the  paper  quoted  above. 

THE   KASHMIRIS. 

THE  Hindus  of  Kashmir,  in  the  north,  are  among  the  finest  of  Indian  races.  They  became 
Mohammedans  several  centuries  ago.  They  are  described  as  almost  European  in  appearance, 
and  in  Kashmir  Ave  miss  the  slender  frames,  prominent  cheek-bones,  and  other  unpleasant 
features  so  prevalent  in  other  parts  of  India.  The  men  are  of  a  square,  herculean  build,  well 
proportioned,  and  with  a  frank  expression,  while  the  women  are  fresh -looking  and  often 
decidedly  beautiful  (see  illustrations  on  pages  190  and  191),  with  an  almost  Jewish  cast  of  counten- 
ance. Those  of  the  better  classes  are  scarcely  darker  than  the  average  natives  of  Italy.  In 
character  they  are  shrewd,  witty,  and  cheerful.  The  Tibetans  of  this  region,  Avho  belong 
to  the  Mongolian  stock,  are  chiefly  found  in  Ladak  and  Baltistau. 
The  Avarlike  Grhoorkas  of  Nepaul  are  of  mixed  Tibetan  stock. 

THE   PARSIS. 

WE  must  not  omit  from  this  brief  survey  of  Indian  races  the  Parsis  of  Bombay.  They  are 
Iranians  (not  Hindus  at  all  in  the  proper  sense)  and  descendants  of  the  old  Persian  fire- 
worshippers  who  took  refuge  in  India  in  the  seventh  century  during  the  Mohammedan  invasion 
of  their  country.  They  have  ever  since  kept  themselves  aloof,  thus  preserving  their  religion 
intact,  and  their  race  too  (see  the  photograph  on  page  192).  They  are  remarkable  for  general 
intelligence  and  commercial  ability.  They  seem  to  be  more  in  sympathy  with  their  English 
rulers  than  any  other  race  in  the  peninsula.  They  are  very  loyal  subjects  of  His  Majesty, 
and  have  acquired  no  small  wealth. 

THE   KHASIS. 

As  a  specimen  of  the  Tibeto-Burmese  race,  which  comes  last  but  one  in  the  scheme  of 
classification  given  on  page  177,  we  select  the  Khasis  for  brief  description.  This  tribe,  which 


INDIA 


197 


dwells  in  the  Khasia  Hills  of  Southern  Assam,  numbers  about  140,000.  Their  voices  are  clear 
and  distinct,  and  their  cries,  as  they  call  to  one  another  across  long  distances  from  hill-top 
to  hill-top,  can  be  heard  far  away  echoing  among  the  valleys.  They  are  a  well-built  race, 
some  of  the  men  and  women  being  perfect  marvels  of  muscular  development;  as  a  rule,  too, 
they  are  courageous,  and  can  fight  well  behind  a  stockade.  Their  women  are  fond  of  dress 
and  finery.  According  to  Lieutenant  Steel,  R.A.,  who  contributed  a  paper  on  these  people  to 
The  Journal  of  the  Anthropological  Institute  (Vol.  VII.,  p.  305),  they  have  grand  dances  in  the 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Frith  &  Co.] 


[Eeigate. 


NATIVE   PRINCES   OF   ORISSA. 


month  of  March  in  honour  of  the  new  moon.  They  assemble  in  certain  places,  when  a  ring 
is  formed,  the  girls  standing  two  and  two  in  the  centre,  facing  outwards,  in  no  particular 
order;  they  then  move  slowly  round  from  left  to  right,  the  whole  mass  of  them  in  twos, 
'with  a  sideling  step,  such  as  soldiers  make  in  "closing"  right  or  left,  with  eyes  fixed  on  the 
ground.  The  young  bachelors  run  round  the  outside  of  the  ring,  waving  fans  made  of 
feathers;  outside  them  again  come  the  ring  of  spectators,  old  married  men  and  women,  with 
children  too  young  to  be  married.  Rude  music  is  played  the  whole  time,  and  the  spirit  of 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


the  proceedings  is  kept  up  by  frequent  and  deep  potations  on  the  part  of  the  male  dancers 
and  musicians.  The  whole  is  of  an  orderly  character,  and  never  degenerates  into  an  orgie. 
The  demure  looks  of  the  girls,  some  pretty  enough,  and  the  ardent  glances  of  the  youths  as 
they  pass  round  and  peep  slyly  at  their  lovers,  make  a  pretty  picture.  The  dress  of  the 
girls  is  silk  throughout,  and  the  ornaments  are  of  gold  and  coral,  all  but  the  crown,  the  feather, 
and  the  bracelets,  which  are  of  silver.  The  Khasis  are  evidently  a  very  primitive  people  who 
have  lingered  on  in  their  native  hills  from  a  remote  antiquity. 

RELIGION  IN   INDIA. 

THE  Hindus,  being  an  essentially  religious  people,  cling  very  persistently  to  their  old  beliefs, 
and  consequently  Christian  missionaries  have  great  difficulties  to  contend  with.  The  women 
exert  a  powerful  influence,  and  until  they  are  converted  India  can  never  become  Christian. 
Another  difficulty,  and  a  very  serious  one,  is  the  fact  that  a  Hindu  who  gives  up  his  old 
faith  becomes  an  outcast,  and  those  who  espouse  Christianity  are  not  always  of  the  best.  But 
in  spite  of  these  obstacles  it  cannot  be  said  that  missions  have  failed.  The  number  of  native 
Christians  is  considerably  over  2,000,000,  and  the  Protestant  communities  have  been  increasing 
at  the  rate  of  50  per  cent,  in  each  decade.  Three  hundred  ordained  native  clergymen  are 
helping  the  work  of  evangelisation,  and  there  are  450  mission  stations,  with  500  European 

missionaries.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  counts  over 
1,250,000  of  adherents,  and 
is  carrying  on  its  work  with 
great  zeal.  As  the  reader  is 
well  aware,  caste  is  one  of 
the  chief  obstacles  to  the 
spread  of  Christianity.  "Will 
it  ever  be  done  away  with?" 
is  a  very  natural  question, 
in  answer  to  which  we  give 
the  following  quotation  from 
Keane:  "Redemption  from 
this  social  yoke  will  ultimately 
be  found  in  the  spread  of 
education,  in  such  internal 
upheavals  as  are  foreshadowed 
by  the  Brahmo-Somaj  and 
other  monotheistic  movements, 
in  the  silent  influences  of 
the  higher  European  culture, 
quickened  by  the  development 
of  the  railway  system  and 
other  levelling  institutions." 
The  Abbe  Dubois,  a  well- 
known  and  zealous  missionary, 
completely  despaired  of  the 
higher  castes  ever  becoming 
Christians,  though  he  was 
ready  to  acknowledge  that 
there  was  a  harvest-field 
among  the  lower  castes  and 
outcasts.  Of  his  own  attempts 
NAGAS  IN  FULL  DRESS.  to  convert  the  Hindus,  he 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Bo 


lBo^ay. 


INDIA 


199 


remarks:  "For  my  part,  I 
may  not  boast  of  my  suc- 
cesses in  the  sacred  career 
during  the  period  that  I 
have  laboured  to  promote 
the  interests  of  the  Christian 
religion.  The  restrictions  and 
privations  under  which  I  have 
lived  by  conforming  myself 
to  the  usages  of  the  country, 
embracing  in  many  respects 
the  prejudices  of  the  natives, 
living  like  them,  and  becom- 
ing all  but  a  Hindu  myself 
— in  short,  by  being  all 
things  to  all  men,  that  I 
might  by  all  means  save 
some  of  those — have  proved 
of  no  avail  to  me  to  make 
proselytes.  During  the  long 
period  I  have  lived  in  India 
in  the  capacity  of  a  mis- 
sionary, I  have  made,  with 
the  assistance  of  a  native 
missionary,  in  all  between  200 
and  300  converts  of  both  sexes. 
Of  this  number  two-thirds 
were  Pariahs,  or  beggars,  and 
the  rest  were  composed  of 
Sudras,  vagrants,  and  outcasts 
of  several  tribes,  who,  being 
without  resources,  turned 
Christians  in  order  to  form 
connections,  chiefly  for  the 
purpose  of  marriage  or  with 
some  other  interested  views." 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Bourne 


's  Shepherd} 
A   RELIGIOUS   MENDICANT. 


[Bombay. 


The  following    table    shows    at    a    glance  the  chief    religions  of  India,   and  their  relative 


strength  in  numbers.      The  Brahmans  are  by  far  the  most  numerous,  being 
population,  while  Mohammedans  come  next  with  nearly  20  per  cent.: — 


per 


cent,  of  the 


Brahrnanic     . 

Mohammedan 

Animistic 

Buddhist 

Christian 

Sikh       . 

Jain 

Zoroastrian    . 

Unreturned   . 

Jew 

Minor  forms 


TABLE  OF  EELIGIONS. 

Nunibere. 

207,731,727 

57,321,164 


.'....        7,131,361 

.        .  2,284,380 

1,907,833 

.        .  1,416,638 

87,904 
42,578 

.        .  17,194 

185 

Total         287,223,431 


Percentage  of 
Population. 

.  72.33 

.  19.96 

.  3.23 
.      2.48 

.  0.80 
.  0.66 
.  0.49 
.  0.03 
.  0.014 
0.006 


.  100.000 


2OO 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


We  have  already  had  occasion  in  previous 
chapters  to  speak  of  animistic  religion;  this 
very  low  and  degraded  form  of  faith  prevails 
largely  in  Polynesia,  Melanesia,  and  Australia, 
as  well  as  in  parts  of  Asia,  where  it  is  largely 
embedded  as  a  sort  of  substratum  in  better 
religions.  The  term  is  used  in  a  wide  sense 
by  Dr.  Tiele,  who  thus  defines  it:  "Animism 
is  the  belief  in  the  existence  of  souls  or 
spirits,  of  which  only  the  powerful — those  on 
which  man  feels  himself  dependent,  and  before 
which  he  stands  in  awe — acquire  the  rank 
of  divine  beings,  and  become  objects  of  wor- 
ship. These  spirits  are  conceived  as  moving 
freely  through  earth  and  air,  and,  either  of 
their  own  accord,  or  because  conjured  by 
some  spell,  appearing  to  men.  But  they 
may  also  take  up  their  abode,  either  perma- 
nently or  temporarily,  in  some  object,  whether 
lifeless  or  living  it  matters  not;  and  this 
object,  as  endowed  with  higher  power,  is  then 
worshipped  or  employed  to  protect  individuals 
or  communities  (fetishism)."  The  main 
object  seems  to  be  to  keep  evil  spirits  in 
order  by  means  of  magic,  or  to  propitiate 
them  by  gifts  or  by  acts  of  homage.  Leaving  for  the  present  this  very  low  form  of  religion, 
we  pass  on  to  consider  the  faith  of  the  noble  Aryan  immigrants  from  the  North. 


F/toto  by  Messrs.  Bourne  &  Shepherd] 

A    FAKIR. 


[Bombay. 


ARYAN   THEOLOGY,    LITERATURE,    ETC. 

SEVERAL  exquisite  hymns  from  the  Vedas  show  clearly  and  eloquently  the  Aryan  belief  in 
a  future  state.  The  deceased,  whose  body  the  flames  are  consuming  in  the  funeral  pyre,  is 
thus  addressed:  "Depart  thou,  depart  thou,  by  the  ancient  paths  to  the  place  whither  our 
fathers  have  departed.  Meet  with  the  Ancient  Ones;  meet  with  the  Lord  of  Death.  Throwing 
off  thine  imperfections,  go  to  thy  home.  Become  united  with  a  body;  clothe  thyself  in 
a  shining  form.  Let  him  depart  to  those  for  whom  flow  the  rivers  of  nectar.  Let  him  depart 
to  those  who,  through  meditation,  have  obtained  the  victory;  who,  by  fixing  their  thoughts 
on  the  unseen,  have  gone  to  heaven.  Let  him  depart  to  the  mighty  in  battle,  to  the  heroes 
who  have  laid  down  their  lives  for  others,  to  those  who  have  bestowed  their  goods  on  the 
poor."  The  doctrine  of  transmigration  is  unknown,  so  that  the  circle  of  relatives  round 
the  funeral  pyre  sing  with  a  firm  assurance  that  their  friend  goes  direct  to  a  state  of 
blessedness  and  reunion  with  the  loved  ones  who  had  gone  before.  "  Do  thou  conduct  us  to 
heaven;  let  us  be  with  our  wives  and  children,"  says  a  later  hymn.  "In  heaven,  where  our 
friends  dwell  in  bliss — having  left  behind  the  infirmities  of  the  body,  free  from  lameness,  free 
from  crookedness  of  limb — there  let  us  behold  our  parents  and  our  children."  "May  the  water- 
shedding  spirits  bear  thee  upwards,  cooling  thee  with  their  swift  motion  through  the  air,  and 
sprinkling  thee  with  dew."  "  Bear  him,  carry  him;  let  him,  with  all  his  faculties  complete,  go 
to  the  world  of  the  righteous.  Crossing  the  dark  valley  which  spreadeth  boundless  around 
him,  let  the  unborn  soul  ascend  to  heaven.  Wash  the  feet  of  him  who  is  stained  with  sin; 
let  him  go  upwards  with  cleansed  feet.  Crossing  the  gloom,  gazing  with  wonder  in  many 
directions,  let  the  unborn  soul  go  up  to  heaven." 


1 


by  Messrs.  Bourne  &  tiheplitrd] 


A    NATIVE    INDIAN    LADY. 

201 


[Evrnbay. 
26 


2O2 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


The  Vedic  hymns  reveal  the  Aryans  on  their  victorious  march  from  the  North:  in  the 
earliest  examples  we  see  them  still  to  the  north  of  the  Khyber  Pass,  in  Kabul;  in  the  later 
ones,  as  far  as  the  Eiver  Ganges.  They  gradually  pushed  eastwards  along  the  base  of  the 
Himalayas,  and  formed  settlements  by  the  great  rivers  of  the  Punjab.  Their  poets  praise  the 
rivers  that  gave  them  wealth  in  the  form  of  broad  fields  Avith  water.  Never  did  they  forget 
their  northern  home  when  they  ceased  to  be  wanderers  and  settled  down  into  agricultural 
communities.  Of  this  period  the  Eig-Veda  is  the  great  literary  memorial.  Its  age  is  unknown. 
It  may  have  been  composed  about  1400  B.C.,  which  would  probably  be  not  very  far  removed  from 
the  period  of  the  Exodus  of  the  Israelites.  Buddhism  arose  in  the  sixth  century  before  Christ, 
and  long  before  then  the  Vedas  had  been  written.  These  splendid  hymns  were  composed  by 
certain  families  of  psalmists  (or  Rishis).  The  Kig-Veda,  contains  over  1,000  hymns,  with 
10,580  verses.  The  system  of  caste  was  unknown  then.  The  father  was  the  priest  of  his  own 
household.  The  chieftain  was  father  and  priest  to  his  tribe;  but  at  the  greater  festivals  he 
chose  some  one  specially  learned  in  holy  offerings  to  conduct  the  sacrifice  in  the  name  of  the 
people.  His  title  was  "  Lord  of  the  settlers,"  and  he  seems  to  have  been  elected.  Xo  one 
can  study  early  Aryan  literature  and  religion  without  being  filled  with  admiration  for  this 
noble  race,  from  which  we  ourselves  are  sprung.  Their  women  (as  in  Egypt)  enjoyed  a  high 
position,  and  some  of  the  most  beautiful  hymns  were  composed  by  ladies  and  queens. 
Marriage  was  held  sacred.  Husband  and  wife  were  both  "rulers  of  the  house,"  and  drew  near 
to  the  gods  together  in  prayer.  The  barbarous  practice  of  burning  widows  (suttee]  was  quite 
unknown;  and  it  now  appears  that  the  later  Brahmans  were  the  responsible  authors  of  this 
horrible  rite.  They  actually  distorted  the  plain  and  obvious  meaning  of  the  following  beautiful 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Bourne  jfc  Shepherd] 


[Bombay. 


A    FAKIR  S    HOME. 


INDIA 


203 


Photo  by  Mr.  H.  Z.  Darrah. 

A   FAKIR   AND   FAMILY   IN   DWELLING-PLACE   UNDER  THE   WHITE   ROCK,   NEAR   DOWLIE. 

words  from  one  of  the  Vedas:    "Rise,  woman"  (says  the  sacred  text);  "come  to  the  world  of 
life — come  to  us;   thou  hast  fulfilled  thy  duties  as  a  wife  to  thy  husband." 

These  free-hearted  tribes  had  a  grand  trust  in  themselves  and  in  their  gods.  Like  other 
conquering  races,  they  believed  both  themselves  and  their  deities  to  be  altogether  superior  to 
the  swarthy  aborigines.  Such  noble  confidence — of  which  Britons  certainly  inherit  their  full 
share — is  a  great  source  of  strength  to  a  nation.  Their  divinities  (Devata  in  Sanskrit,  literally 
"The  Shining  Ones")  were  the  great  powers  of  Nature,  and  some  of  their  names  still  survive 
in  English,  and  can  easily  be  traced  back  through  Latin  and  Greek  forms.  But  as  the  Aryans 
advanced  in  progress  they  became  divided  into  castes,  directed  by  a  powerful  priesthood.  How 
did  the  priests  become  so  completely  a  caste  by  themselves?  In  this  way.  As  already  stated, 
in  the  early  days  a  lord  or  chieftain  called  in  some  man  specially  learned  in  holy  offerings 
to  conduct  the  tribal  sacrifices.  These  men  were  highly  honoured.  The  art  of  writing  being 
unknown  (so  it  is  supposed),  the  hymns  and  words  were  handed  down'by  word  of  mouth.  In 
this  way  those  families  who  learned  them  by  heart  became  hereditary  owners  of  the  liturgies 
required  at  the  most  solemn  offerings  to  the  gods.  Hence  members  of  such  households  were 
chosen  again  and  again  to  conduct  the  sacrifices  and  to  chant  the  battle-hymn,  to  implore  the 
divine  aid,  or  to  pray  away  the  divine  wrath.  The  simple  warriors  of  that  age  came  to  believe 
that  a  hymn  or  prayer  which  had  once  brought  them  victory  would  probably  do  so  again. 
In  this  way  the  hymns  became  a  valuable  family  property  for  those  who  had  composed  or 
learned  them.  It  was  a  possession  even  more  absolute  than  modern  "copyright."  The  potent 
prayer  was  called  Brahma,  and  the  man  who  offered  it  Brahman.  These  families  did  all  in 
their  power  to  make  the  ceremonies  solemn  and  imposing;  and  gradually  a  vast  array  of 
ministrants  grew  up  round  each  of  the  greater  sacrifices,— first,  the  officiating  priests  and 
their  assistants,  who  dressed  the  altar,  slew  the  victims,  and  poured  out  the  libations;  then, 
the  chanters  of  the  hymns;  then,  the  reciters  of  other  parts  of  the  service;  and,  lastly,  the 
superior  priests,  who  supervised  all  the  proceedings. 


204 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


The  Brahmans  had  in  their  keeping  not  only  the  sacred  books,  but  the  philosophy  and 
science  of  the  Hindus.  And,  moreover,  they  were  the  custodians  of  all  the  secular  literature — 
like  the  monks  of  Europe  in  early  and  mediaeval  days.  In  order  to  understand  the  long 
period  of  time  that  this  Brahman  supremacy  has  lasted,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  they  were 
a  literary  as  well  as  a  religious  caste.  At  times  this  supremacy  has  been  assailed — and  for 
two  centuries  actually  overthrown — but  still  for  twenty-two  centuries  they  have  been  the 
counsellors  of  princes  and  teachers  of  the  people.  An  extract  from  the  Eig-Veda  illustrates 
their  power:  "That  king  before  whom  marches  the  priest,  he  alone  dwells  well  established 

in  his  house,  to  him  the  people  bow 
down.  The  king  who  gives  wealth  to 
the  priest,  he  will  conquer,  him  the 
gods  will  protect." 

In  time  the  thoughtful  and  re- 
flective Brahmans  began  to  perceive 
that  the  old  gods  of  the  Vedas  were 
but  poetic  fictions.  For  when  they 
came  to  think  the  matter  out,  they 
arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  sun, 
the  aqueous  vapour,  the  sky,  the  wind, 
and  the  dawn  could  not  all  be  separate 
and  supreme  creators,  but  that  they 
must  all  have  proceeded  from  one  great 
First  Cause.  They  therefore,  in  order 
to  appease  old  prejudices,  accepted 
"The  Shining  Ones  "of  the  Vedas  as 
beautiful  and  useful  manifestations  of 
divine  power,  and  did  not  cease  to 
conduct  sacrifices  in  their  honour.  But 
among  themselves  they  began  to  teach 
the  doctrine  of  the  Unity  of  God.  To 
the  Vedas,  the  Brahmanas,  and  the 
Sutras  they  added  a  vast  body  of 
theological  literature,  composed  at  in- 
tervals between  1000  B.C.  and  800  B.C. 
The  Upanishads,  meaning  the  Science 
of  God  and  his  Identity  with  the  Soul; 
the  Aranyakas,  or  Tracts  for  the  Forest 
Recluse;  and  the  much  later  Puranas, 
or  Traditions  from  of  Old, — all  contain 
mystic  and  beautiful  doctrines  incul- 
cating the  Unity  of  God  and  the 
Immortality  of  the  Soul,  mingled  with 
less  noble  dogmas,  popular  tales,  and 

superstitions.  The  masses  continued  to  believe  in  four  castes,  four  Vedas,  and  many  deities; 
but  the  most  thoughtful  Brahmans  taught  and  believed  that  in  the  beginning  there  was  but 
one  caste,  one  Veda,  and  one  God. 

The  High-born  Dawn,  the  Genial  Sun,  the  Friendly  Day,  and  the  kindly  but  confused  old 
groups  of  Vedic  deities  gradually  gave  place  to  the  conception  of  one  god  in  his  three 
manifestations,— as  Brahma,  the  Creator;  Vishnu,  the  Preserver;  and  Siva,  the  Destroyer  and 
Eeproducer.  These  still  form  the  Triad  of  Hindu  mythology.  But  Brahma,  the  Creator,  was 
too  abstract  to  be  a  popular  god.  There  is  only  one  great  seat  of  his  worship  at  the  present 
day.  Vishnu,  the  Preserver,  was  more  popular;  in  his  ten  incarnations,  especially  in  his  seventh 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Bourne  &  Shepherd} 

THE   LATE    MAHARAJAH    OF   HOLKAR. 


[Bombay. 


INDIA 


205 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Bourne  &  Shepherd] 


A   HINDU   SACRIFICE. 


{Bombay. 


and  eighth,  as  Rama  and  Krishna,  under  many  names  and  in  various  forms,  he  supplanted  the 
bright  Vedic  gods.  On  the  other  hand,  Siva,  the  third  person  of  the  Triad,  first  as  Destroyer, 
and  then  as  Reproducer,  conveyed  the  profound  conception  of  death  as  a  change  of  state  and 
the  means  whereby  the  gates  of  heaven  are  opened  to  the  righteous.  Thus  Siva  claimed 
reverence  from  the  mystic  and  philosophical  Brahmans,  while  at  the  same  time,  his  terrible 
aspects  associated  him  alike  with  the  Rudra,  or  "  God  of  Roaring  Tempests  "  of  the  Veda,  and 
also  with  the  blood-loving  deities  of  the  aborigines.  Vishnu  and  Siva,  in  their  diverse  male 
and  female  shapes,  now  form,  to  a  large  extent,  the  gods  of  the  Hindu  population. 

In  those  early  days  religion  and  literature  were  intimately  connected;  a  few  words  on  the 
Aryan  religious  poetry  may  therefore  not  be  out  of  place  here.  The  entire  religious  service  was 
taken  from  the  Veda,  or  "Inspired  Knowledge,"  an  old  Aryan  word  that  reappears  in  the  Latin 
vid-ere,  to  see  or  perceive  (compare  the  Greek  o!8a,  I  know,  German  wissen,  and  English  wit). 
The  Vedic  books  are  four  in  number,  and  known  as  the  Rig- Veda,  the  Yajur-Veda,  the  Sama- 
Veda,  and  the  Atharva-Veda.  Of  these,  the  Sama  consists  mostly  of  selections  from  the 
Rig- Veda,  while  the  Yajur-Veda  is  only  a  collection  of  hymns  relating  to  the  practical  details 
of  sacrificial  rites;  hence  the  Atharva  and  the  Rig  Vedas  are  the  chief  source  from  which 
we  can  gather  information  of  the  religion  of  the  early  Aryans.  The  Atharva-Veda,  which  is 
much  more  recent  than  the  others,  consists  mainly  of  incantations,  invocations,  magic  spells, 
love-charms,  and  formulas.  To  the  Vedas  were  appended  long  prose  compositions  called  the 
Brahmanas;  these,  although  long  and  tedious,  are  yet  of  considerable  interest,  because  they 
contain  the  record  of  the  oldest  forms  of  the  sacrificial  ritual,  the  oldest  traditions,  and 
the  oldest  philosophical  speculation.  The  Rig- Veda  has  two  Brahmauas,  the  Sama- Veda 
has  four,  the  Yajur-Veda  has  two,  and  the  Atharva-Veda  has  only  one.  These  Brahmanas 
are  again  divided  into  the  Aranyakas,  dealing  with  the  life  of  the  ascetic  in  the  forest; 


206 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


and  the  Upanishads,  which  contain  the 
freer  religious  speculations  of  the  time. 
By  the  time  the  latter  were  written 
the  simple  and  lofty  ideas  of  the  Vedic 
hymns  had  vanished,  and  the  worship 
of  the  gods  was  replaced  by  an  elaborate 
cult.  Everything  was  done  that  could 
be  done  to  make  the  people  believe 
more  than  ever  in  the  supernatural 
origin  claimed  by  the  Brahmans  both 
for  themselves  and  .for  their  teaching. 
In  the  Vedic  period  the  Brahman 
was  (as  the  word  denoted)  "one  who 
prays,"  a  "worshipper,"  or  "the  com- 
poser or  reciter  of  a  hymn."  The 
veneration  for  these  priests  runs  through 
all  the  life  of  the  Hindu  peasant,  and 
takes  the  practical  form  of  either  offer- 
ings or  food.  No  child  is  born,  named, 
betrothed,  or  married,  nobody  dies  or 
is  burned,  no  journey  is  undertaken  or 
auspicious  day  selected,  no  house  is 
built,  no  agricultural  operation  of  im- 
portance begun  or  harvest  gathered 
in,  without  the  Brahmans  being  fed. 
A  portion  of  the  produce  is  set  apart 
for  their  use.  They  are  consulted  in 
sickness  and  in  health;  they  are  feasted 
in  sorrow  and  in  joy.  Tall,  erect,  proud, 
conscious  of  his  superior  intellect,  the 

Brahman  walks  along  with  an  air  that  well  expresses  his  inward  conviction  of  inherent  purity 
and  sanctity. 

The  Brahman  caste,  having  after  prolonged  struggles  established  its  power,  made  a  wise 
use  of  it.  From  the  ancient  times  when  the  Yedic  hymns  were  composed,  they  clearly 
recognised  that,  in  order  to  rule  their  fellow-men  in  spiritual  matters,  they  must  renounce 
temporal  power — a  lesson  which  the  Eornan  Church  has  not  learned  even  yet.  They  could  not 
be  kings,  but  they  did  become  kings'  counsellors  and  guides.  As  the  duty  of  the  Sudra,  or 
menial,  was  to  serve,  of  the  Vaisya,  or  peasant,  to  till  the  ground  or  follow  some  handicraft, 
and  of  the  Kshatriya  caste  to  fight,  so  that  of  the  Brahman  was  to  be  priest  and  offer 
up  prayers  and  sacrifices.  As  their  functions  were  mysterious  and  above  the  reach  of  other 
men,  so  they  considered  must  their  lives  be.  Their  whole  life  was  mapped  out  for  them. 
On  entering  into  manhood,  the  Brahman  was  solemnly  invested  with  the  sacred  thread  of  "  the 
twice-born."  Youth  and  early  manhood  were  spent  in  learning  by  heart  the  inspired  scriptures 
from  the  lips  of  some  older  priest,  in  tending  the  sacred  fire,  or  in  attending  to  the  personal 
wants  of  their  revered  teacher.  These  studies  completed,  the  young  man  married  and  brought 
up  a  family,  so  gaining  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  world  and  of  human  nature.  To  thia 
period  the  third  stage  in  his  life  was  a  strange  contrast;  for  he  retired  into  the  forest,  feeding 
on  roots,  and  practising  certain  religious  rites.  The  last  stage  was  that  of  the  ascetic  or 
religious  mendicant,  quite  out  of  touch  with  mundane  affairs,  and  striving  to  attain  a  condition 
of  mind  which,  heedless  of  the  joys  or  pains  of  the  body,  is  intent  only  on  its  own  perfection 
and  the  attainment  of  peace.  He  became  one  of  the  holy  men  so  well  described  by  Mr.  Kipling 
in  his  wonderful  and  enchanting  "Jungle-Books"  (see  "The  Miracle  of  Pimm  Bhagat").  He  ate 


Photo  by  Messrs.   Watts  &  Skeen] 

A    CORMGHI    WOMAN,    MADRAS. 


[Rangoon. 


A    BRAHMAN    PRIEST. 

Photos  by  Messrs.  Bourne  &  Shepherd] 


A    BHATIA. 


[Bombay. 


208 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


only  what  was  given  to  him.  All 
through  life  he  practised  a  strict 
temperance,  drank  no  wine,  and  set 
an  example  to  others  of  "  plain  living 
aud  high  thinking."  For  "what  is 
the  world?"  said  a  Brahman  sage. 
"  It  is  even  as  the  bough  of  a 
tree,  on  which  a  bird  rests  for  a 
night,  and  in  the  morning  flies 
away." 

Doubtless  a  certain  number  of 
individuals  out  of  such  a  large  class 
would  find  the  yoke  a  hard  one,  and 
might  relapse  into  worldliuess.  This 
has  happened  to  a  certain  extent; 
and,  moreover,  the  struggle  of  life 
in  modern  times  has  forced  very 
many  of  these  sacred  persons  to  take 
up  secular  pursuits.  But  all  Sanskrit 
literature  bears  witness  to  the  fact 
that  this  ideal  life  was  constantly 
before  the  eyes  of  the  Brahmans,  and 
that  they  did  to  some  considerable 
extent  live  up  to  this  high  standard 
in  its  two  essential  features  of  self- 
culture  and  self-restraint.  Certain 
incidents  recorded  in  the  history  of 
Buddha  in  the  sixth  century  before 
Christ  show  that  numbers  of  Brahmans 
were  then  living  according  to  the 
rules  of  life  laid  down  for  them. 
Three  centuries  later  the  Greek 
ambassador  Megasthenes  found  them 
discoursing  in  their  groves  chiefly 
on  subjects  such  as  life  and  death. 
To  this  day  they  have  their  colleges, 
and  English  visitors  to  these  retreats 
are  struck  with  the  strict  discipline 
enforced  and  the  devotion  of  the 
students  to  their  studies. 
Brahmans  marry  only  within  their  caste;  they  become  fathers  when  in  their  prime;  and 
not  being  called  upon  for  military  service,  they  have  not  lost  any  of  their  best  and  strongest 
sons  in  war.  Hence  their  best  qualities  have  been  transmitted  in  an  ever-increasing  measure 
to  their  descendants.  The  Brahmans  of  to-day,  therefore,  present  to  us  the  result  of  nearly 
3,000  years  of  hereditary  education  and  self-restraint,  and  the  result  is  that  they  have 
produced  quite  a  distinct  type.  Even  the  passing  traveller  in  India  marks  them  out 
both  from  the  muscular  and  athletic  Rajputs,  or  warrior  class,  and  from  the  dark-skinned, 
thick-lipped,  and  short  aborigines  (Dravidians  and  Kolarians).  The  class  has  become  the  ruling 
power,  not  by  force  of  arms,  but  by  superior  mind  and  the  effects  of  culture  and  true 
temperance.  Dynasties  rose  and  fell;  conquests  took  place;  religions,  such  as  Buddhism,  have 
spread  themselves  over  the  land  and  disappeared;  but  the  Brahman  has  calmly  ruled,  swaying 
the  counsels  of  kings  and  princes,  and  receiving  the  homage  of  the  people,  as  beings  half 


Messrs.  Bourne  <&  Shepherd] 

AN   EXECUTIONER   OF   REWA. 


Photo  by  1C.  Gregory  c£-  Co.} 


AN    INDIAN    PRINCE    WHO    ATTENDED    THE    QUEEN'S   JUBILEE,    1897. 


[Strand,  W.C. 
27 


2IO 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


divine.  But  we  have  not  yet  awarded  them  the  full 
measure  of  praise  which  is  undoubtedly  their  due.  For 
their  own  Aryan  people  they  developed  a  noble  literature. 
Not  only  were  they  priests  of  their  people,  but 
also  their  philosophers,  statesmen,  law-givers,  men  of 
science,  and  even  poets.  Nor  could  the  lower  and 
aboriginal  race  fail  to  share  in  the  general  upward  pro- 
gress. To  these  barbarians,  survivals  of  the  Stone  and 
Bronze  Ages  (so  called),  they  brought  a  knowledge  of 
metals  and  higher  religious  teaching  in  the  place  of  a 
mere  belief  in  demons.  Within  historic  times  the 
Brahmans  have  largely  incorporated  the  aborigines  within 
the  folds  of  an  all-embracing  Hinduism,  though  not 
without  some  concessions  to  their  primeval  notions. 

But  let  us  look  at  the  other  side  of  the  picture. 
A  Brahman  sees  nothing  humiliating  in  asking  for  or 
receiving  alms.  According  to  his  ideas,  it  is  a  right 
of  which  he  may  make  free  use.  His  attitude  when 
begging  is  also  very  unlike  that  of  the  poor  wretch 
among  ourselves  who  fawns  and  grovels  for  the  smallest 
trifle.  The  Brahman  asks  for  alms  as  for  something 
that  is  his  due,  and  not  as  though  imploring  a  favour 
or  a  benefit.  The  begging  Brahman  boldly  enters  a 
house  and  states  what  he  wants.  Should  he  receive 
anything,  he  takes  it  without  saying  a  word,  goes  away 
without  any  acknowledgment,  and  without  showing  the 
smallest  sign  of  gratitude.  Should  he  meet  with  a 
refusal,  however,  he  retires  without  any  complaint  or 
grumbling. 

Intense  selfishness  is  also  a  common  characteristic 
of  a  Brahman.  Brought  up  in  the  idea  that  nothing  is 
too  good  for  him,  and  that  he  owes  nothing  in  return 
to  any  one,  he  models  the  whole  of  his  life  on  these 
principles.  He  would  unhesitatingly  sacrifice  public  good 
or  his  country  itself  if  it  served  his  own  interests,  and 
he  would  stoop  to  treason,  ingratitude,  or  any  deed, 
however  black,  if  it  promoted  his  own  welfare.  He 
makes  it  a  point  of  duty,  not  only  to  hold  himself 
aloof  from  all  other  human  beings,  but  also  to  despise 
and  hate  from  the  bottom  of  his  heart  every  one  who  happens  not  to  be  born  of  the  same 
caste  as  himself;  and,  further,  he  thinks  himself  absolved  from  any  feelings  of  gratitude,  pity, 
or  consideration  towards  them.  If  he  occasionally  shows  any  kindness,  it  is  only  to  some 
one  of  his  own  caste.  As  for  the  rest  of  mankind,  he  has  been  taught  from  his  earliest 
youth  to  look  upon  them  all  as  infinitely  beneath  him.  The  Brahmans  number  more  than 
4,500,000. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  'country  in  the  world  where  religious  fanaticism  is  carried  so  far  as  in 
India.  Devotees  are  often  seen  stretched  at  full  length  on  the  ground,  and  rolling  in  that 
posture  all  round  the  temples,  or  during  the  solemn  processions  before  the  cars  which  carry 
the  idols.  It  is  a  remarkable  sight  to  see  a  crowd  of  fanatics  rolling  in  this  manner  quite 
regardless  of  stones,  thorns,  and  other  obstacles.  Others,  inspired  by  extreme  fanaticism, 
voluntarily  throw  themselves  down  to  be  crushed  under  the  wheels  of  the  car  on  which  the 
idol  is  borne  (this  has  now  been  prohibited  by  law) ;  and  the  crowds  that  witness  these  acts  of 


Pholo  by  Mr.  Fred.  Bremner} 
A   NATIVE   FROM   THE   AFGHAN-BALUCH 
FRONTIER. 


INDIA 


211 


madness,  far  from  preventing  them,  applaud  them  heartily,  and  regard  them  as  the  very  acme 
of  devotion.  Some  devotees  are  to  be  met  with  who  make  a  vow  to  walk  with  bare  feet  on 
burning  coals.  Very  few  escape  from  the  ordeal  with  their  feet  uninjured.  Others  pierce  both 
cheeks  with  silver  wire.  Thus  bridled,  the  mouth  cannot  be  opened  without  acute  pain.  Many 
have  been  known  to  travel  for  twenty  miles  with  these  wires  in  their  jaws.  Some  fanatics  will 
cut  out  half  their  tongue.  Again,  there  are  others  who  bind  themselves  to  go  on  a  pilgrimage 
to  some  distant  shrine  by  measuring  their  length  along  the  ground  throughout  the  whole 
distance.  Beginning  at  their  very  doors,  the  pilgrims  stretch  themselves  on  the  ground, 
rise  again,  advance  two  steps,  again  lie  down,  again  rise,  and  continue  this  until  they  reach 
their  destination. 

In  India  there  are  thousands  of  men  living  a  life  of  religious  contemplation  who  never  do 
any  work,  but  are  supported  by  alms.  Fakir  is  one  of  the  names  by  which  these  holy  men 
are  known  (see  illustrations  on  pages  199,  200,  202,  and  203).  They  sit  under  trees  or 
among  the  tombs,  or  live  together  in  monasteries.  They  are  not  all  of  one  religion;  for  while 
some  are  Hindus,  others  are  Sikhs,  or  even  Mohammedans.  According  to  Mr.  William  Crooke, 
however,  the  fakir  is  often  an  "  idle,  loafing  vagabond,  who  wanders  about  the  country  begging 
alms.  In  the  North- western  Provinces  there  are  no  less  than  2,000,000  of  these  sturdy 
beggars."  It  is  only  fair,  however,  to  add  (as  Mr.  Crooke  himself  informs  us)  that  there  is 
another  class  of  fakirs  who 
live  in  monasteries,  devoting 
themselves  to  religious 
meditation,  and  who  do  not 
beg.  Many  of  them  are 
quiet  and  worthy  people. 

The  Egyptians  con- 
sidered that  to  kill,  even  by 
accident,  one  of  their  sacred 
animals  was  the  most  heinous 
of  crimes.  Whoever  was 
guilty  of  such  an  act  was 
invariably  put  to  death.  A 
Koman  soldier  was  torn  in 
pieces  by  the  populace,  in 
spite  of  the  terror  that  the 
name  of  Eome  inspired,  for 
having  by  mischance  killed 
a  cat.  Diodorus,  who  records 
this  incident,  also  mentions 
that  during  the  famine  the 
Egyptians  preferred  to  devour 
each  other  rather  than  touch 
the  animals  they  held  sacred. 
The  Hindus  would  also  carry 
their  scruples  to  the  same 
point.  In  whatever  straits 
they  may  be,  they  would 
prefer  to  die  rather  than 
save  their  lives  by  killing 
cattle.  From  this  we  may 
conclude  that,  though  they 
daily  witness  the  slaughter 
of  the  sacred  animals  by 


Photo  by  Mr.  Fred.  Bn-iniu-r\ 


\_Quetta. 


NATIVES   FROM   THE   AFGHAN-HALT; CH   FRONTIER. 


212 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Photo  by  Mr.  Fred.  Bremner] 

AN   AFGHAN    WOMAN    AND    CHILD. 


[fyietta. 


Europeans  without  uttering 
any  loud  complaint,  they 
are  far  from  beiug  insensible 
to  the  insult;  and  although 
they  do  not  now  openly 
revolt,  on  account  of  the 
fear  inspired  in  them  by 
foreigners,  their  indigna- 
tion is  none  the  less 
because  secret.  "  Pious 
Lingayats  have  often  come 
to  me,"  says  the  Abbe 
Dubois,  "  imagining  that  my 
title  of  European  priest 
gives  me  great  influence 
over  my  fellow-countrymen, 
to  implore  me,  in  earnest 
terms  and  even  with  tears 
in  their  eyes,  to  do  every- 
thing in  my  power  to  put 
a  stop  to  the  sacrilege.  In 
states  which  are  still  ruled 
by  heathen  princes,  on  no 
pretext  whatever  is  it  per- 
mitted to  kill  a  cow.  In 
fact,  this  act  of  sacrilege, 
so  hateful  to  Hindus,  is 
only  permitted  in  provinces 
where  Europeans  or  Moham- 
medans hold  sway." 


AFGHANISTAN  AND   BALUCHISTAN. 

THE  Afghans  are  a  fine  race,  tall  and  well  built,  with  somewhat  aquiline  nose  and  a  warlike 
countenance.  Within  recent  times  many  of  them  have  migrated  into  the  Punjab  and  seized 
territory  there;  not  a  few  of  them  now  serve  in  the  native  army  of  India.  Although  famous 
for  courage,  their  discipline  is  not  so  good  as  that  of  Sikhs  or  Rajputs.  If  we  compare  the 
national  character  and  customs  of  the  Rajputs  of  India  with  those  of  the  Afghans  in  their  own 
country,  we  find  a  very  remarkable  similarity.  Both  exhibit  a  warlike  spirit,  are  strongly 
averse  to  control,  addicted  to  vice  and  debauchery,  unstable,  proud,  jealous  of  national  honour 
and  personal  dignity,  and  domineering.  With  regard  to  customs,  we  find  pretty  much  the 
same  laws  of  hospitality,  protection  to  the  refugee,  exaction  of  vengeance,  jealousy  of  female 
honour,  and  widows  marrying  the  dead  husbands'  brothers.  Again,  in  physiognomy  there  is  a 
striking  resemblance,  both  possessing  a  decidedly  Jewish  type  of  countenance.  According  to 
a  native  tradition,  Syria  was  the  home  of  the  Afghans  until  Nebuchadnezzar  carried  them  into 
captivity  and  planted  them  as  colonists  in  parts*  of  Persia  and  Media.  Hence  they  appear  to 
have  migrated  eastwards  into  Ghor,  a  mountainous  country,  where  they  received  the  names  "  Bani 
Afghan,"  or  "  Children  of  Afghan,"  and  "  Bani  Israel,"  or  "  Children  of  Israel."  This  theory  of 
their  origin  seems  to  be  confirmed  by  the  testimony  of  Esdras,  the  prophet,  who  says  that 
the  captured  ten  tribes  escaped  and  took  refuge  in  the  country  of  Arsareh,  which  may  be  the 
Hazarah  country  of  which  Ghor  is  a  part.  There  is  other  testimony  to  the  same  effect.  At 
present  no  one  can  say  at  what  period  the  Afghans  of  Ghor  moved  on  into  the  Kandahar  country. 


AFGHANISTAN    AND    BALUCHISTAN 


213 


By  the  people  of  India,  Afghans  are  called  Pathans,  in  common  with  all  the  Pukh to- 
speaking  peoples,  who  use  the  word  in  a  very  wide  sense;  but  the  people  themselves  use  it 
in  a  very  restricted  sense.  The  former  include  under  this  general  term  even  the  Tajik  and 
the  Hazarah,  both  Persian-speaking  peoples.  The  latter  apply  it  only  to  Pukhto-speaking  races, 
and  even  then  with  a  distinction.  Pathan,  then,  means  Pukhtun.  "The  sections  themselves 
are  divided  into  a  multiplicity  of  minor  branches,  septs,  and  clans,  offering  still  further  obstacles 
to  a  general  amalgamation  of  the  whole  race.  And  the  race  itself  is  everywhere  opposed  to 
other  races  speaking  different  languages,  such  as  Tajiks,  Hindkis,  Usbegs,  Siah-Posh  Kafirs, 
Hazaras,  and  Aimaks,  which,  although  numerically  inferior,  possess  greater  national  cohesion, 


Photo  by  Mr.  Fred.  B 


BRAHUIS    OF   AFGHANISTAN. 


and  which  in  some  cases  have  been  able  to  maintain  their  independence.  But  for  these 
untoward  circumstances  the  Afghan  race,  by  its  warlike  spirit  and  remarkable  physical 
vitality,  might  seem  destined  to  subdue  the  surrounding  peoples.  But  their  national  resources 
have  hitherto  for  the  most  part  been  frittered  away  in  internecine  broils  and  struggles  for  the 
local  independence  of  individual  chiefs  and  tribes"  (Keane). 

Mr.  Bellew,  in  his  "  Eaces  of  Afghanistan,"  says:  "Looking  at  the  Afridi  as  we  find  him 
to-day,  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  him  the  descendant  of  the  mild,  industrious,  peace-loving, 
and  contemplative  Buddhist,  abhorrent  of  the  shedding  of  blood  or  destruction  of  life  of  even 
the  minutest  or  meanest  of  God's  creatures;  or  even  to  imagine  him  descended  from  fire- 
worshipping  ancestors,  whose  tender  care  for  life  was  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  Buddhist, 
and  whose  sincere  and  punctilious  devotion  to  the  observance  of  the  minute  ceremonies  and 
ordinances  of  their  religion  was  surpassed  by  none.  The  Afridi  of  to-day,  though  professedly 
a  Mohammedan,  has  really  no  religion  at  all.  He  is,  to  a  great  extent,  ignorant  of  the 


214 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


tenets  and  doctrines  of  the  creed  he  professes,  and,  even  if  he  knew  them,  would  in  no  way 
be  restrained  by  them  in  pursuit  of  his  purpose.  Whatever  he  may  have  been  as  a  Buddhist 
or  as  a  fire-worshipper,  he  has  now  sunk  to  the  lowest  grade  of  civilisation,  and  borders  upon 
the  savage.  Entirely  illiterate,  under  no  acknowledged  control,  each  man  his  own  king,  the 
nation  has  dwindled  down  to  a  small  community  of  less  than  300,000  souls,  mostly  robbers  and 
cut-throats,  without  principles  of  conduct  of  any  kind,  and  with  nothing  but  the  incentive  of 
the  moment  as  the  prompter  to  immediate  action.  Even  among  his  own  nationality  (the 
Pathan)  he  is  accounted  the  faithless  of  the  faithless,  and  is  held  on  all  sides  to  be  the 
most  fierce  and  stealthy  of  all  enemies.  As  we  know  him,  merely  in  the  character  of  an 
independent  neighbour,  he  is  a  wily,  mistrusting,  wolfish,  and  wilful  savage,  with  no  other 
object  in  life  but  the  pursuit  of  robbery  and  murder,  and  the  feuds  they  give  rise  to." 


Photo  by  Messrs.  Bourne  &  Shepherd] 


The  writer  of  the  above  work  (published  in  the  year  1880),  so  well  known  to  all  students 
of  Indian  ethnology,  makes  a  remarkable  prophecy  with  regard  to  these  Afridis,  and  one  which 
a  year  or  two  ago  was  so  completely  fulfilled  that  we  feel  sure  his  warning  will  interest  our 
readers.  He  says:  "The  result  of  thirty  years'  contact  with  them  has  in  no  way  attached  the 
people  to  us,  nor  has  the  example  of  British  rule  made  any  visible  change  in  their  condition, 
except  perhaps  in  enabling  them,  through  our  own  neglect  to  protect  ourselves  manfully,  to 
become  the  best  armed  of  any  of  our  frontier  tribes.  We  shall  have  some  day  to  conquer 
this  people  and  annex  the  country,  and  we  shall  then  find  what  a  born  race  of  marksmen  can 
do  with  our  own  Enfields  and  Sniders  and  Martini-IIenris  in  their  hands, — partly  acquired  by 
a  weakness  the  Afridi  has  for  enlisting  into  our  native  army  and  then  deserting,  and  quite 
naturally  taking  his  arms  with  him;  but  mostly  by  clever  theft  in  the  barracks  of  every 
newly  arrived  regiment,  European  or  native." 

On   the  southern    slopes    of    the    Hindu-Kush    Mountains    and    near    to    Kashmir  are  the 


CHIEFS    OF   BALUCHISTAN. 
215 


2l6 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


territories  of  Kafiristan,  Gilgit,  Chitral,  Swat,  and  Chilas,  hitherto  supposed  to  owe  allegiance  to 
the  Afghans.  But  all  except  Kafiristan,  which  the  Afghans  have  now  occupied,  have  come  under 
British  rule.  Very  little  was  known  of  Kafiristan  ("Land  of  the  Infidel")  before  Mr.  (now  Sir) 
G.  T.  Kobertson's  expedition  of  1889-90,  and  his  journeys  were  in  the  eastern  and  central  parts 
only;  but  he  has  collected  valuable  information.  In  his  opinion  the  people  appear  to  be  mainly 
derived  from  the  old  Indian  population  of  Eastern  Afghanistan,  who,  rejecting  Islam,  took  refuge 
in  the  almost  inaccessible  mountain  valleys  of  the  liindu-Kush,  and  mixed  more  or  less  with 
the  dark  aborigines,  who  are  still  represented  by  the  Presuns,  Arams,  and  others,  while  they 
themselves  have  received  the  name  Siali-Posli,  or  "  black-clad,"  on  account  of  the  dark  colour  of 
their  clothing.  The  two  types  are  still  clearly  to  be  discerned:  the  one  (Aryan)  with  high  and 
regular  features;  the  other  coarse,  flat-nosed,  and  with  hair  nearly  down  to  the  eyebrows.  The 
Siah-Posh  are  a  brave  and  intelligent  people,  living  under  a  tribal  system. 

The  inhabitants  of  Baluchistan,  often  called  Baluchis,  are  decidedly  different  from  Pathans, 
both  in  character  and  in  appearance.  They  are  brave  and  chivalrous,  essentially  wanderers, 
not  very  energetic,  and  always  needy  and  hungry.  Though  less  democratic  in  their  ideas  than 
the  Pathans,  they  are  even  fonder  of  their  personal  liberty.  The  ruling  race,  however,  in 
Baluchistan  are  not  the  Baluchis,  but  the  Brahuis,  who  were  in  the  country  before  them,  and 
are  more  numerous.  The  affinities  of  the  Brahuis  have  not  yet  been  determined.  They 
inhabit  the  eastern  highlands,  while  the  Baluchis  dwell  mainly  in  the  lowlands.  The  latter 
have  migrated  into  the  Punjab;  hence  we  were  able  to  obtain  the  excellent  photographs  of  a 
group  of  them  by  Mr.  Fred.  Bremner,  of  Quetta.  Both  races  are  Mohammedans,  the  Brahuis 
being  Sunnis  and  the  Baluchis  Shiahs,  like  their  Persian  kinsmen. 


Photo  by  Fred.  Bremner] 


CHIEFS    OF    BALUCHISTAN. 


[Quetta. 


CHAPTER  X. 
TURKESTAN,   BOKHARA,   SIBERIA,  AND   PERSIA. 


TURKESTAN. 

THE  population  of  this  great  region  is  composed  of  different  races,  so  blended  together  as 
to  produce  a  type  differing  in  important  characteristics  from  the  primary  stocks,  both  Turki 
and  Iranian.  The  Turki  branch  of  the  great  Mongolo-Tartar  division  of  the  human  species, 
which  is  the  predominating  one,  occupies  nearly  all  Turkestan.  The  population  is  estimated 
at  5,500,000,  of  whom  Iranians,  of  Persian  stock,  constitute  one-fifth,  while  the  Galchis,  another 
distinct  people,  though  related  to  the  Iranians,  number  about  300,000  in  Ferghana,  Zarafshan, 
and  the  valleys  of  the  Upper  Oxus. 

In  prehistoric  times  the  Turki 
races  were  nomad  tribes,  wandering 
over  the  plains  and  uplands  of 
their  country.  "\Yarlike  and  fond 
of  freedom,  they  sought  only  pas- 
turage for  their  flocks  and  herds. 
Their  arable  tracts  and  the  cities 
they  built  (as,  for  example,  Khiva, 
Bokhara,  Ferghana,  and  Samarcand) 
were  of  old,  as  they  are  now,  the 
joint  home  of  men  belonging  to 
the  Turki  and  Persian  races.  For 
centuries  a  considerable  inter- 
mingling of  these  races  has  been 
going  on,  with  the  result  that  the 
original  types  have  become  so  much 
modified  as  to  be  hardly  distin- 
guishable in  the  general  mass, 
although  some  typical  features  may 
appear  as  strongly  marked  in  in- 
dividuals of  the  mixed  race  as  in 
either  Turk  or  Persian  of  the  purest 
blood.  The  people  of  both  races 
are  divided  into  a  great  number  of 
tribes,  and  each  tribe  is  again  split 
up  into  clans  or  families. 

The  principal  tribes  of  Turki 
stock  are  the  Kirghiz,  the  Turko- 
mans, and  the  Usbegs  (described  on 
page  222).  The  Kirghiz  are  divided 

into     two    branches  -  namely,    the          tiy  ])ermig^H  of  ike  Pt0yal  Gemld 
Kirghiz-Kazaks      and      the      Kara-  A  TURKOMAN. 

217 


2l8 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Kirghiz,  who  together  number  about 
3,000,000.  The  Kara-Kirghiz,  or 
"Black  Kirghiz,"  who  live  on  Great 
Pamir  and  the  Tianshan  Highlands, 
number  only  about  300,000.  The 
Kirghiz-Kazaks  themselves  have  never 
used  the  name  Kirghiz,  which  was 
given  them  by  the  Eussiaus  in  order 
to  distinguish  them  from  their  own 
Cossaks.  They  are  the  lowlanders; 
while  the  Kara-Kirghiz  are  the  high- 
landers,  who  have  largely  wasted  their 
energies  in  fighting  among  themselves 
and  with  the  Kirghiz-Kazaks,  who 
exercise  the  authority  of  lords  and 
owners  over  the  vast  steppes  extending 
from  the  Lower  Volga  to  Zungaria, 
and  from  the  head-waters  of  the 
streams  that  flow  northward  to  the 
shores  of  the  Sea  of  Aral.  The 
Kirghiz-Kazaks  are  considered  to  fill 
an  intermediate  position  between  the 
Turki  and  Mongol  races,  possessing 
many  physical  traits  in  common  with 
the  Mongolian,  but  speaking  a  pure 
Turki  dialect.  Originally  they  were 
divided  into  three  septs,  or  "hordes." 
The  Middle  Horde  retained  the  cities 
Tashkend  and  Turkestan;  the  Great 
Horde  moved  to  the  east;  and  the  Lesser  Horde  to  the  west  and  north. 

In  the  year  1734  the  subjugation  of  the  Kirghiz-Kazaks  by  the  Russians  began;  but 
more  than  a  hundred  years  of  intermittent  war  and  constant  persecution  were  required  to 
make  these  wild  wanderers  of  the  plain  recognise  that  they  were  in  conflict  with  a  mighty 
and  constantly  increasing  power,  to  which  they  must  surrender  some,  at  least,  of  their  indepen- 
dence. These  people  are  generally  short  of  stature,  with  round,  swarthy  faces,  short  noses, 
small,  sharp  black  eyes,  and  the  tightly  drawn  eyelids  which  are  seen  in  all  races  derived  from 
primary  Mongolian  stock.  Flocks  and  herds  are  their  only  wealth.  The  summer  they  spend 
on  the  higher  slopes  of  the  mountains  where  pasture  can  be  found;  in  winter  they  descend 
to  the  valleys.  Members  of  the  same  tent-village,  which  they  term  an  aul,  are  generally 
kinsmen,  and  their  flocks  may  graze  on  the  same  lands.  So  hardy  are  these  people  that  they 
can  go  without  drink  for  a  whole  day  and  without  food  for  several  days.  They  are  very  fond 
of  mutton,  but  at  their  great  feasts  horse-flesh  is  eaten.  Having  no  bread,  they  sometimes 
make  a  kind  of  porridge  of  millet.  Tea  is  a  favourite  beverage,  but  koumiss  may  be  called 
the  national  drink.  It  is  made  of  mare's  milk  fermented,  and  is  preserved  in  skins.  Travellers 
say  it  is  very  wholesome,  and  many  medical  men  in  England  recommend  it  to  consumptive 
patients. 

The  men  all  shave  their  heads  and  allow  their  small  beards  to  grow.  They  wear  immense 
baggy  breeches  and  a  coarse  shirt,  the  most  noticeable  feature  of  which  is  the  wide,  flapping 
collar.  The  outer  garment  is  like  a  dressing-gown,  and  two  or  three  of  these  are  some- 
times worn  together,  according  to  the  temperature.  Men  who  are  rich  in  flocks  and  herds 
have  magnificent  velvet  robes,  richly  embroidered  with  gold  and  silver.  Embroidered  skull-caps 
arc  worn,  and  over  these  oddly  shaped  hoods  of  sheep  skin  or  conical  felt  hats.  Belts,  saddles, 


By  permission  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 

A   KARA-KIRGHIZ    WOMAN. 


A    KIRGHIZ    MAN    OF    TASHKEXD. 


A   KIRGHIZ    MAN,    DISTRICT 
OF   SEMIRETCHENSK. 


A    KARA-KIRGHIZ,    DISTRICT 
OF    SEMIRETCHENSK. 


AN    USBEG    MAN,    DISTRICT    OF 
ZARAFSHAN. 


<BEG  WOMAX,  DISTRICT  OF 
ZARAFSHAN. 


A    TAJIK    MAN    OF    TASHKEND. 


A    TAJIK   WOMAN    OF   TASHKEXD. 


A    TARANCHA    MAN,    DISTRICT 
OF   KULJA. 

By  permission  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 
219 


A    TARANCHA    WOMAN,    DISTRICT 
OF    KULJA. 


22O 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


and  bridles  are  often  covered  with  silver,  gold,  and  precious  stones.  The  women  dress  nearly 
like  the  men;  but  instead  of  wearing  felt  hats,  their  heads  and  necks  are  wrapped  up  in  loose 
folds  of  white  cotton  cloth,  so  as  to  make  a  bib  and  a  great  turban  combined.  The  women 
do  most  of  the  work,  the  men  being  lazy.  Girls  watch  the  sheep  at  night. 

Owing  to  the  simple  conditions  of  their  lives,  the  Kirghiz-Kazaks  are  far  more  truly 
children  of  Nature  than  most  Asiatics.  The  men  are  great  riders,  being  able  to  travel 
hundreds  of  miles  without  apparent  fatigue.  Spending  their  time  mostly  on  horseback,  they 
acquire  an  intimate  familiarity  with  all  the  aspects  of  the  plains  and  hills.  Their  powers 
of  vision  are  most  remarkable;  and  being  very  observant,  they  are  invaluable  guides  for 
travellers.  They  can  find  their  way  at  night  without  the  aid  of  the  stars,  and  are  able  to 
distinguish  the  colour  of  a  horse  on  the  horizon  long  before  the  stranger  can  discern  its 
presence  there. 

Marriage  is  purely  a  matter  of  barter;  betrothal  takes  place  at  an  early  age.  Sometimes 
the  bride  costs  her  husband  as  much  as  100  mares,  but  never  less  than  twenty-seven.  In 
1868  the  Kussian  Government  gave  to  brides  the  right  of  withdrawing  from  wedlock  with 
bridegrooms  to  whom  they  had  been  engaged  in  extreme  youth.  The  men  for  a  long  time 

kept     the    women     ignorant     of    this 

• 1       law;    but  when   it   was    published,    a 

number  of  brides  came  forward  to 
claim  their  freedom.  In  old  days  a 
woman  who  wished  to  be  free  from 
her  husband  was  obliged  to  run  away 
from  him  three  times.  Then,  if  upon 
inquiry  it  could  be  proved  that  she 
had  been  harshly  treated,  the  marriage 
was  dissolved. 

At  the  birth  of  a  child  an 
assembly  of  old  women  employ  magic 
rites  to  keep  off  evil  spirits,  and  in 
order  to  propitiate  them  part  of  the 
flesh  of  a  freshly  killed  lamb  or  sheep 
is  thrown  into  the  fire.  A  boy  baby 

Plato  by  M.  Labbe\  [Paris.  is  greeted  with  joy;    but  the  arrival 

A  KIRGHIZ  BED.  of  a   giri   js   fejt   as   a  burden  and  a 

misfortune. 

When  a  death  takes  place,  the  body  is  well  washed,  dressed  in  clean  white  clothes, 
wrapped  in  linen  and  felts,  and  carried  with  but  little  delay  to  the  grave.  The  ground  is 
dug  out  to  a  depth  of  three  feet,  the  spot  is  marked  with  a  stone,  and  mourners  visit  the 
grave  for  forty  days  after  the  interment. 

.Religion  is  scarcely  more  than  a  name.  The  people  profess  themselves  Mohammedans,  but 
very  few  have  any  fixed  religious  principles.  There  is  no  settled  and  recognised  priestly  order. 
They  rarely  pray;  and  such  notions  as  are  entertained  concerning  things  supernatural  are 
nearly  all  derived  from  older  paganism  and  contemporary  Shamanism,  which  is  a  species  of 
Nature-worship,  with  Shamans  or  wizards  to  officiate  and  to  interpret  signs  and  omens. 

From  the  earliest  accounts  Turkomans  appear  as  a  plundering  nomad  race,  who  were  never 
politically  organised.  "We  are  all  equal,"  they  say;  "with  us  every  man  is  a  king."  The 
title  of  khan  among  them  is  little  more  than  honorary.  As  their  name  implies,  they  are  of 
Turki  stock.  The  number  of  these  people  is  estimated  at  over  600,000.  They  are  divided 
into  nine  sub-tribes,  each  of  which  is  independent  of  the  others,  though  all  recognise  a 
common  origin.  A  feeling  of  brotherhood  prevents  anarchy.  The  Turkoman  was  till  recently 
a  slave-dealer,  selling  Persians,  whose  caravans  he  waylaid  in  Khiva  and  Bokhara.  In  1881 
the  "Russians  destroyed  the  military  power  of  the  Turkomans  by  capturing  their  principal 


BOKHARA 


221 


fortress,  Geok-Tepe,  when  20,000  people  were  slaughtered,  and  the  "White  Czar'"'  has  since 
repressed  slave-dealing.  They  are  a  brave,  hardy  race,  naturally  averse  to  restraint,  preferring 
a  free  life  on  the  steppe  to  the  routine  and  method  of  a  city.* 

BOKHARA. 

Ix  Bokhara  we  find  Usbegs,  of  Turki  stock,  and  Tajiks,  who  represent  the  original  Iranian 
element,  differing  in  many  respects  from  the  Persians.  Bokhara,  though  nominally  independent, 
is  so  completely  dominated  by  Eussia  as  to  be  practically  part  of  her  empire.  Few  states  of 
its  small  size  contain  a  population  so  heterogeneous;  for  besides  the  Usbegs  and  Tajiks  there 
are  Arabs,  Persians,  Turkomans,  and  Jews.  The  population  has  been  conjecturally  estimated  at 
about  1,000,000.  Most  of  the  Usbegs  in  Bokhara  are  engaged  in  agriculture  and  inhabit 
towns,  but  a  few  are  still  wandering  nomads.  Their  manner  is  bold  and  straightforward.  They 
associate  with  Tajiks,  but  as  yet  no  real  friendliness  exists  between  the  tribes,  although 

*  The  author  is  again  indebted  to  Mr.  E.  Delmar  Morgan,  F.R.G.S.,  for  his  kindness  in  allowing  him  to  reproduce 
here  some  of  the  excellent  photographs  taken  for  him  during  his  travels  in  Eastern  Turkestan.  The  originals  are  in  the 
possession  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  the  Council  of  which  also  kindly  gave  their  permission. 


By  permission  of  the  Royal  Gtograj/hical  Society. 


TURKOMAN    WOMEN. 


222 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


intermarriage  takes  place  to  a  certain  extent.  In  appearance,  as  well  as  in  character,  they 
are  readily  distinguished.  The  Usbegs  are  taller  and  thinner,  have  but  scanty  beards  (owing 
to  the  Mongol  strain  in  their  blood),  and  much  more  strongly  marked  faces.  They  look 
upon  Tajiks  as  effeminate  and  time-serving,  although  the  latter  have  intellectual  qualities 
which  make  them  indispensable.  The  government  is  in  their  hands;  their  soldiers  are  brave 
and  dashing.  In  religion  all  are  fanatical  Mohammedans.  The  Usbegs  cultivate  with  great 

assiduity  the  music  and  poetry  iden- 
tified with  their  race.  They  arrange 
mock  battles  to  celebrate  great  occa- 
sions, and  are  particularly  fond  of 
horse-racing. 

The  Tajiks  claim  to  be  of  Arab 
descent;  but  physical  traits,  and  the 
fact  that  their  language  is  a  dialect 
of  Persian,  prove  them  to  be  a  branch 
of  the  latter  race.  They  came  from 
the  west,  and  settled  on  the  banks 
of  the  Zarafshan  River  at  a  time  when 
the  country  was  uninhabited,  and  only 
a  jungle  of  reeds  was  to  be  seen 
where  the  town  of  Bokhara  now 
stands.  In  that  city  Tajiks  consti- 
tute the  majority  of  the  population, 
and  have  won  a  reputation  as  enter- 
prising and  skilful  traders.  Their 
peaceable  disposition  is  attributed  by 
the  Usbegs  to  cowardice.  They  are 
known  to  be  avaricious,  faithless,  and 
deceitful.  The  Iranian  type  is  appa- 
rent in  their  faces;  yet  they  differ 
in  some  respects  from  Persians  who 
have  settled  in  Bokhara  within  recent 
times.  They  may  be  described  as  tall, 
with  handsome  and  regular  features, 
rather  fair  in  complexion,  with  black 
hair  and  eyes.  The  men  cultivate 
ample  beards,  and  try  to  improve  their 

personal  appearance  as  much  as  possible;  yet  their  faces  show  an  expression  of  shrewdness 
and  of  cunning  which  excites  suspicion  in  others.  Most  of  them  speak  Turki,  the  language 
of  the  Usbegs.  Their  intellectual  superiority  has  secured  for  them  a  leading  place  in  Bokharan 
society.  (See  illustrations  on  page  x519.) 


By  permission  of  the  Royal  Gtoi/iajt/iical  Society.  - 

A   DUNGAN   WOMAN,    PROVINCE   OF   KULJA. 


SIBERIA. 

THE  native  inhabitants  of  Siberia  are  said  to  number  scarcely  750,000,  excluding  the  Bashkirs, 
who  dwell  west  of  the  Ural  Eiver,  and  both  the  Kara  Kirghiz  and  the  Kirghiz-Kazaks,  who 
live  mostly  south  of  the  Aralo-Caspian  region.  All  the  numerous  native  races,  of  which  we 
shall  only  describe  a  few  typical  ones,  are  being  rapidly  absorbed  by  the  Russians,  or  Slavs. 
None  of  them  appear  able  to  hold  their  own,  except  the  Yakuts  of  the  Lena  Basin,  and 
the  Kirghiz  of  the  West  Siberian  Steppes.  Ostiaks,  Samoyedes,  Giliaks,  and  others  are  fast 
dying  out.  All  these  and  many  more  aboriginal  tribes  belong  to  the  Mongolo-Tartar  division, 
except  the  "  Hyperboreans,"  who  are  as  yet  unclassified. 


SIBERIA 


223 


Of  Mongolian  stock  are  the  Kalmuks,  including  Zungars,  etc.,  all  Buddhists,  numbering 
about  20,000;  the  Buriats  (eastern  and  western  branches)  about  250,000  in  number. 

Of  Manchu  stock  are  the  Tuuguses,  including  Lamuts,  Oroches,  Golds,  Dungans,  etc., 
about  80,000. 

Of  Finnic  stock  are  Samoyedes,  including  Soyots,  and  others,  about  35,000;  Ugriaus,  including 
Ostiaks,  25,000;  and  Voguls,  4,500;  and,  lastly,  mixed  Finno-Tartars,  to  the  number  of  5,000. 

Of  Turki  stock  are  Yakuts,  Bed  and  Black  Tartars,  etc.,  about  280,000. 


By  permission  of  the  Royal  Geographica 


DUNGANS    OP   KULJA. 


Finally  (leaving  out  Kussians,  Chinese,  Manchus,  Koreans,  and  Japanese),  we  have  some 
unclassified  races,  such  as  Koriaks,  Chukchis,  Kamchadales,  Giliaks,  and  Eskimo. 

Kalmuks  are  found  in  Eastern  Turkestan  (the  Tarim  Basin)  as  well  as  in  Siberia.  They  are 
Buddhists  by  religion;  Lamas  are  their  priests.  At  the  yearly  festival,  held  at  a  place  called 
Joh,  the  bones  of  defunct  Lamas,  brought  from  all  quarters,  are  boiled  in  a  huge  cauldron. 
On  this  occasion  (according  to  the  testimony  of  the  late  Sir  T.  D.  Fraser's  "Report  on  the 
Indian  Government  Mission  to  Yarkand  ")  two  or  three  aged  Lamas  always  sacrifice  themselves 
by  jumping  into  the  boiling  liquor.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  festival  the  liquor  is  distributed 
among  the  attendant  Lamas,  who  fill  copper  vessels,  which  they  afterwards  carry  about 
suspended  from  their  girdles.  On  returning  home,  they  distribute  the  liquor  to  other  Lamas, 


224 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


By  permission  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 

A  GROUP   OF   SARTS   AND   DUNGANS,   WITH   CART   (OR    "  AREAS  "). 


who  again  fill  smaller 
copper  vessels  with  it;  and 
when  a  Lama  eats,  he  first 
dips  a  wood  pencil  into 
his  little  copper  bottle  and 
passes  it  across  his  tongue. 
At  the  present  day 
the  Kalmuks  number 
about  20,000.  In  personal 
appearance  they  are  ugly, 
and  those  who  have  deal- 
ings with  them  consider 
them  cunning,  dishonest, 
and  drunken.  The  men 
are  excellent  horsemen, 
and  breed  camels  for  the 
Tiflis  market. 

The  Mongolian  race 
in  Siberia  is  best  repre- 
sented by  the  Bnriats,  who  possess  its  typical  features  and  characteristics  in  a  more  marked 
degree  than  the  Kalmuks.  Their  physiognomy  undeniably  proclaims  their  origin.  They  have 
very  large  skulls,  square  faces,  and  low,  fiat  foreheads;  the  cheek-bones  are  high  and  wide 
apart,  the  eyes  elongated,  the  nose  is  flat,  the  skin  swarthy  and  yellowish,  and  the  hair  jet 
black.  With  the  men  the  hair  is  allowed  to  grow  upon  the  crown  of  the  head,  and  is  plaited 
into  a  queu6  that  hangs  down  at  the  back.  The  hair  around  the  crown  is  cut  as  closely 
as  possible,  but  not  shaved  off.  The  women  wear  their  hair  in  two  thick  braids,  which  fall 
from  the  temples  to  below  the  shoulders;  and  the  unmarried  girls  interweave  their  hair  with 
strings  of  coral. 

The  Buriats  have  been  long  settled  on  both  sides  of  Lake  Baikal.  The  two  great 
branches  of  the  Buriats,  distinguished  as  the  east  branch  and  the  west  branch,  according  to 
the  side  of  the  lake  they  occupy,  number  250,000,  the  highest  number  assigned  to  any  of 
the  natives  races  of  Siberia.  They  are  divided  into  eleven  principal  tribes,  each  of  which  is 
again  divided  into  clans  or  families.  Previously  to  their  subjugation  by  the  Eussiaus  all  were 
addicted  to  the  old  Shamanist  religion  of  Siberia;  but  towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century  those  dwelling  east  of  Lake  Baikal  adopted  Buddhism,  while  most  of  the  others 
conformed  to  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church  and  became  Christian,  in  name  at  least — though,  it 
is  said,  both  branches  are  still,  at  heart,  genuine  Shamanists. 

The  Buriats  are  of  a  decidedly  phlegmatic  temperament.  They  lack  the  active  enterprise 
from  which  greatness  is  usually  developed,  and  they  have  such  an  inborn  disinclination  for 
work  of  any  kind  that  sometimes  only  the  stimulus  of  hunger  will  move  them  to  exertion. 
Through  the  Russians,  with  whom  they  have  long  had  considerable  intercourse,  they  have, 
unhappily,  acquired  a  passionate  love  of  strong  drink  and  tobacco,  and  now  one  may  often 
come  across  children  eight  or  nine  years  old  with  pipes  in  their  mouths. 

The  ordinary  occupation  of  the  Buriats  is  that  of  tending  cattle.  Mr.  Lansdell  mentions 
some  rich  Buriats  who  possessed  6,000  or  7,000  sheep,  2,000  head  of  horned  cattle,  and  200 
horses;  while  Captain  Cochrane  tells  of  the  mother  of  a  Buriat  chief  who  owned  40,000  sheep, 
10,000  horses,  and  3,000  horned  cattle,  beside  a  large  property  in  furs.  Though  they  are 
commonly  unsociable  and  phlegmatic,  there  is  no  ground  for  assuming  that  the  Buriats  lack 
intellectual  power.  The  English  missionaries  taught  some  of  them  Latin,  and  prepared  in 
the  Buriat  language  an  elementary  work  on  geometry,  which  is  still  much  appreciated.  One 
class  of  the  Lamas  among  the  Buddhistic  Buriats  study  and  practise  medicine,  in  which  they 
acquire  a  reputation  for  skill.  Those  of  the  Buriats  who  are  Buddhists — and  they  are  by  far 


SIBERIA 


225 


the  greater  number  of  the  people — have  temples,  ritual,  an  order  of  priests,  and  a  considerable 
literature.  Those  who  are  Christians  are  not  less  endowed  intellectually,  and  their  number  is 
increasing.  Most  travellers  glance  only  superficially  at  what  has  been  done  and  what  is  being 
done  by  the  English  Mission  to  the  Buriats,  and  conclude  without  sufficient  evidence  that 
its  efforts  must  be  necessarily  futile.  Mr.  Lansdell,  however,  has  shown  that,  years  ago, 
the  English  missionaries  laid  a  solid  foundation.  They  taught  and  trained  several  Buriat 
scholars,  and  they  translated  the  Scriptures  into  the  Buriat  tongue,  which  translation  the 
Kussian  missionaries  have  in  their  hands  to-day.  The  Russian  missionaries  of  the  Greek 
Church  count  their  converts  by  thousands.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  on  the  eastern  side 
of  Lake  Baikal,  among  the  Buddhist  Buriats,  300  converts  and  children  are  baptised  each 
year,  and  on.  the  western  side,  where  Shamanism  prevails,  the  number  annually  baptised 
exceeds  1,000. 

Following  the  scheme  of  classification   already  set  forth — a  scheme  which  is  based  on  that 
of    Keane — we     come    to    the 
tribes    of    Mauchu    stock,   in- 
cluded under  the  general  name 
Tunguses. 

The  Tunguses  hold  an 
enormous  domain,  stretching 
from  the  Yenisei  River  to  the 
shore  of  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
and  washed  at  two  points  by 
the  waters  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  Travellers  who  have 
lived  among  them  enthusias- 
tically praise  the  many  ad- 
mirable qualities  of  these 
people,  and  Mr.  Keane  asserts 
that  "there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  they  are  one  of  the  very 
noblest  types  of  mankind." 
They  are  of  Manchu  stock, 
and  number  about  80,000, 
divided  into  a  great  number 
of  tribes,  who  wander  over  a 
far  larger  area  than  the  men 
of  any  other  race  in  Siberia. 
Those  in  the  Valley  of  the 
Yenisei  give  themselves  to 
the  care  of  reindeer  and  to 
the  chase.  M.  Theel  says 
they  are  by  far  the  most  in- 
telligent of  the  natives  on  the 
Yenisei,  and  that  their  rich 
women  (such  as  the  wives 
of  chiefs)  often  wear  furs  of 
beaver,  sable,  and  grey  fox  to 
the  value  of  many  hundred 
pounds  sterling.  He  men- 
tions, as  a  proof  of  their 
intellectual  cultivation  and 

their  taste,  a  hexagonal  spindle 

29 


3y  permission  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 

DURANI   MENDICANTS. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 

of  ivory  which  was  presented  to  him  there, 
upon  which  the  days,  the  weeks,  and  the 
mouths  of  the  year  were  represented  by  signs. 
The  southern  tribes  of  the  race  have  adopted 
Buddhist  doctrines;  the  northern  tribes  are 
mainly  Shamanist,  or  pagan,  though  many  have 
hearkened  to  the  teaching  of  missionaries  and 
become  Christians.  They  are  partly  nomads 
and  partly  settled  agriculturists  and  rearers  of 
cattle.  Cheerful  under  the  most  depressing 
circumstances,  persevering,  candid,  and  trust- 
worthy, they  are  a  fearless  race  of  hunters,  yet 
modest  and  self-reliant.  Born  amidst  the  gloom 
of  their  dense  pine  forests,  they  are  not  gloomy. 
Exposed  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave  to  every 
danger  from  wild  beasts,  rigorous  climate,  and 
rapacious  man,  they  are  not  repelled  by  any 
difficulty.  Want  and  hardships  of  every  kind 
they  endure  with  surprising  fortitude,  and 
nothing  can  induce  them  to  quit  their  solitary 
woodlands,  where  they  cheerfully  face  the  Arctic 
terrors  of  their  long  winter  rather  than  take 
service  under  the  Russians. 

Among  the  principal  animals  which  the 
Tunguses  hunt — whose  furs  they  find  marketable,  and  whose  flesh  is  their  food — are  the  sable, 
the  common  fox,  the  white  fox,  the  elk,  the  reindeer,  the  wolf,  the  bear,  the  ermine,  and  the 
squirrel.  At  the  beginning  of  October  they  start  out  on  their  snow-shoes,  with  the  long, 
supple  bow  and  a  sheaf  of  arrows,  or  perhaps  one  of  the  common,  almost  worthless  guns  with 
which  Russian  traders  supply  them  in  exchange  for  the  valuable  spoils  of  the  chase.  Alone  or 
in  company  the  hunter  goes  into  the  virgin  forest,  and  is  followed  by  a  little  sledge  drawn  by 
dogs.  The  hunting  of  the  elk  is  carried  on  to  such  an  extent  that  in  some  years  as  many  as 
10,000  skins  are  offered  for  sale  at  Yeniseisk,  after  the  Tuuguses  have  taken  all  they  require 
for  tent-making,  clothing,  and  other  uses. 

The  Tunguses  have  no  towns,  no  permanent  villages,  but  live  in  tents  of  skin  or  of  bark, 
according  to  the  season.  They  have  little  idea  of  the  mineral  wealth  with  which  their 
country  abounds,  though  the  many  tons  of  gold  procured  there  prove  that  a  great  part  of  the 
Yenisei  Valley  is  a  veritable  El  Dorado.  They  spend  their  lives  peacefully,  yet  industriously, 
fishing  in  summer  and  hunting  in  winter,  and  on  the  whole,  as  we  are  justified  in  concluding, 
happily. 

Middendorff  says  that  the  senses  of  these  people  are  highly  developed,  their  sight  being 
extremely  keen.  But  he  found  them  incapable  of  distinguishing  kindred  colours — yellows  and 
greens,  greens  and  blues.  They  could  only  recognise  the  strongest  tints,  and  that  after  long 
pondering.  In  their  eyes  all  dark  colours  appear  to  be  confused  with  black.  They  have  but 
few  musical  instruments.  Rattles  made  of  reindeer  teeth,  sables'  jaws,  roes^  feet,  hang  by  the 
cradle  of  the  Tungus  baby  to  keep  it  quiet.  In  summer  the  people  celebrate  in  song  the  feats 
of  ancestors  and  heroes,  the  return  of  the  sun,  and  other  themes.  "Wrangel  calls  them  "  the 
Frenchmen  of  the  tundra,"  on  account  of  their  liveliness,  sociability,  and  courtly  manners. 
Their  way  of  life  is1 'an  admirable  example  of  the  social  virtues.  Castren  calls  them  "the 
nobility  of  Siberia." 

,  From  the  people  of  Finnic  stock  we  select  for  description  the  Samoyedes  and  the  Ostiaks. 
The  Samoyedes  are  perhaps  the  most  primitive  and  untaught  of  all  the  Siberians.  Their 
domain  lies  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  extending  from  the  Khatanga  River  westward  to  the 


A  KALMUK  WOMAN  (PROFILE). 


A  KALMUK  WOMAN  (FULL-FACE). 


KALMUK  CHILDREN.  A  KALMUK  MAN. 

The  Ulustrations  of  Kalmuks  are  from  photographs  by  M.  Pierre  Petit,  Paris. 


228 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


By  permission  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 


WOMEN    OF    TVRKKSTAN. 


Kanin  Peninsula,  one  of  the  most  northerly  points  of  Russia  in  Europe.  They  are  usually 
represented  as  dwelling  wholly  on  lands  abutting  on  the  Arctic  Ocean;  but  the  eastern  branch, 
that  found  near  the  upper  waters  of  the  Khatanga  River,  does  not  appear  to  have  quite  reached 
the  coast.  Though  only  a  dwindling  remnant  of  a  race,  some  of  their  natural  qualities, 
as  well  as  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  developed,  render  the  Samoyedes  an  interesting 
people.  Tn  physiognomy  they  are  strongly  Mongolian;  the  expression  is  pleasant,  though 
rather  sad.  "We  are  indebted  for  the  accompanying  photographs  to  Dr.  J.  Szombathy,  of 
Vienna,  who  took  the  pictures  himself,  and  who  has  written  an  important  paper  on  these 
people  (Anthrop.  Soc.,  Vienna).  Their  average  height  is  above  that  of  the  Laplanders,  and 
their  limbs  are  better  proportioned. 

The-  name  Samoyedes  has  been  given  them  by  the  Russians.  They  call  themselves 
Hasovo,  which  is  equivalent  to  ''men,"  and  also  Nyeuech,  with  the  same  meaning.  Their 
immediate  neighbours,  the  Ostiaks,  call  them  Yergan-yach;  the  Voguls  have  another  name  for 
them.  Their  riches  consist  of  reindeer,  which  pasture  on  the  mosses  of  the  tundras,  or  vast 
marshes,  scraping  off  the  snow  with  their  feet.  When  alive,  the  reindeer  draws  the  Samoyede's 
sledge,  and  after  death  its  flesh  is  eaten  and  its  skin  is  used  for  making  tents  and  clothing. 
Almost  every  part  of  the  animal  is  used  in  some  way. 

In  winter  the  men  wear  short  trousers  of  reindeer-skin,  coming  down  to  the  knees. 
Their  stockings  are  made  of  the  skin  of  young  fawns,  with  the  hair  worn  inside.  Then  come 


SIBERIA 


229 


the  boots,  which  may  almost  be  called  boot-stockings,  coming  up  nearly  to  the  thighs.  The 
tunic  is  a  reversible  garment,  also  of  reindeer-skin,  fastened  at  the  waist  with  a  girdle  and 
furnished  with  sleeves.  It  has  a  high,  straight  collar,  which  is  sometimes  worn  so  as  to  rise 
above  the  top  of  the  head.  The  cap  is  of  the  same  material.  In  fine  weather  the  tunic  is 
worn  with  the  hair  outside;  in  wet  weather,  with  the  hair  inside.  "When  a  long  spell  of  cold 
weather  comes,  a  second  garment  is  worn. 

Honesty  is  a  marked  characteristic  of  the  Samoyedes.  The  merchants  of  Tobolsk,  when 
they  go  north  in  the  summer  to  purchase  fish,  take  with  them  flour  and  salt,  place  them  in 
the  summer  stations,  and  leave  what  they  do  not  use  for  the  following  year.  If  a  Samoyede 
should  pass  by,  and  be  in  pressing  want,  he  takes  as  much  as  he  needs.  But  he  leaves  an 
I.O.U.  in  the  form  of  a  notched  stick.  In  the  fishing  season,  when  he  can  procure  the 
means  to  pay  back,  he  goes  to  the  merchant  and  asks  for  his  notched  stick,  compares  it  with 
a  duplicate  he  has  kept,  and,  having  assured  himself  that  the  notches  correspond,  pays  over 
sufficient  fish  to  cancel  the  debt. 

Mr.  Kae,  Mr.  Seebohm,   Mr.   Lansdell,  and  Captain  Wiggins,  who  have  written  interesting 
accounts    of    their    personal    experiences    among    the     Samoyedes,    agree    with    other    northern 
explorers  in  describing   them   as  a  kindly  and   cheerful  people,  very  hospitable,  and  generous 
in    sharing    the    things   that 
come  into  their  possession. 

The  Samoyede  is  a  peace- 
able being,  and  eminently 
sociable.  He  will  travel  a 
long  way  out  of  his  ordinary 
course  in  order  to  visit  a 
tent  where  fellow-tribesmen 
live.  He  is  fond  of  gossip, 
a  characteristic  of  all  races  of 
Mongol  stock.  He  treats  his 
women  with  great  respect. 

The  wealthier  and  less 
wandering  families  of  the 
Samoyedes  profess  Chris- 
tianity. This  religion  is  in 
fashion  solely  because  it  is 
that  of  the  Kussiaiis,  Avho 
are  their  masters,  and  whom 
they  dare  not  offend  by 
openly  practising  the  rites  of 
the  paganism  which  is  still 
cherished  among  them.  The 
difficulty  of  educating  and 
Christianising  these  wander- 
ing tribes  is  exceedingly 
great.  A  priest  of  the 
Russian  Church  is  sent  yearly 
among  them  to  baptise 
children  and  converts,  and  to 
marry  such  of  them  as  are 
professedly  Christian;  but 
though  many  go  through  the 
form  of  being  admitted  within 
the  pale  of  Christianity,  "  all 


Photo  by  J.  Szombathy} 


[Vienna. 


A   GROUP   OF   SAMOYEDES. 


230 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


alike,"  as  Mr.  Keane  tersely  says,  "are  true  pagans,  or  idol-worshippers.  Their  gods  are 
carnivorous,  and  are  fond  of  raw  flesh,  which  is  accordingly  thrust  between  their  teeth  at  stated 
times."  As  Jong  as  things  go  well  with  him,  the  Samoyede  is  content  to  be  regarded  as  a 
Christian;  but  should  his  reindeer  die  or  other  catastrophe  happen,  he  returns  to  his  ancient 
gods  Num  and  Chaddi. 

Of  all  the  Christian  teaching,  that  relating  to  marriage  and  chastity  has  the  least  influence 
on  converted  Samoyedes,  Tnngnses,  and  others.  An  observer  in  Central  Siberia  writes  as 
follows:  "The  feeling  of  modesty  seems  to  be  entirely  lacking  here.  Any  one  not  accustomed 
to  this  kind  of  life  is  so  much  shocked  and  degraded  in  his  own  eyes  by  what  he  is  obliged 
to  see  and  hear,  that  he  is  ready  to  despise  himself  and  the  whole  world.  This  lack  of 
modesty  is  furthered  by  the  close  contiguity  in  which  married  and  unmarried  persons  live." 
Exchange  of  wives  is  a  common  form  of  hospitality.  Brandy,  the  scourge  of  all  the  northern 
races,  makes  trade  very  unprofitable  to  these  peoples;  for  whenever  it  is  wanted,  traders  and 
Avhalers  obtain  any  quantity  of  skins  and  walrus  teeth  for  liquor  of  the  very  worst  and 
cheapest  quality.  Notwithstanding  this  weakness,  Mr.  Eae,  who  lived  among  them,  expresses 
a  high  opinion  of  the  Samoyedes,  considering  them  superior  in  generosity  and  general  character 
to  the  Kussians  who  are  found  in  their  country. 

The  Ostiaks,   one  of  the  three  tribes  of  Finnic  stock  inhabiting  the  most  westerly  part  of 

Siberia,  are  scattered  about 
in  groups  along  the  basin  of 
the  Ob  Eiver,  northward 
towards  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
and  eastward  towards  the 
River  Yenisei.  In  a  wide 
domain  of  about  400,000 
square  miles  they  do  not 
number  more  than  25,000, 
though  once  accounted  a 
powerful  people.  Their  old 
national  organisation  is 
broken  up,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  they  will  ultimately 
be  absorbed  among  the 
Russian  settlers,  as  only  the 
Ural  Mountains,  which  are 
comparatively  near,  divide 
them  from  Russia  in  Europe. 
They  have  now  no  towns  or 
villages,  although  they  are 
divided  into  many  tribes. 
Their  dress  is  the  same  as 
that  of  Russian  peasants. 
For  food  they  are  dependent 
on  the  spoils  of  the  chase 
and  the  fish  which  are 
plentiful  in  their  rivers.  The 
Ostiaks  are  short  of  stature, 
with  dark  hair  and  eyes  and 
flat  faces.  In  complexion 
and  general  appearance  they 
are  not  unlike  some  of  the 
Chinese.  They  are  noted 


Photo  by  J.  Szomba/fty] 


A    SAMOYEDE    MAN    AND    WOMAN. 


SIBERIA 


231 


A    GROUP    OF    GOLDS. 


among  other  Siberians 
for  the  dexterity  with 
which  they  capture  or 
kill  the  wild  reindeer 
that  roam  over  the 
dreary  tundras,  or 
marshes,  of  which  their 
domain  largely  con- 
sists. They  tie  leathern 
cords  across  the  tops 
of  the  antlers  of  tame 
deer,  and  turn  them 
loose  one  by  one  when 
in  the  neighbourhood 
of  a  herd  of  wild 
animals.  The  wild 
doer  attack  the  tame 
deer,  and  in  the  con- 
test which  ensues  their 
antlers  become  en- 
tangled in  the  leathern 
cords,  which  hold  them 
until  the  Ostiak  hunters  come  within  bowshot,  when  the  wild  ones  become  their  prey. 

The  wolf  and  the  bear  are  regarded  by  the  Ostiaks  as  highly  gifted  creatures,  and  as 
such  are  celebrated  in  some  of  their  songs.  When  a  bear  is  killed,  its  skin  is  stuffed  with  hay, 
and  the  people  gather  round  their  fallen  enemy  to  celebrate  their  triumph  with  appropriate 
songs  of  mockery;  bub  when  that  ceremony  has  been  performed,  the  stuffed  skin  is  set  upright 
on  its  hind  legs,  and  regarded  with  all  the  veneration  due  to  a  guardian  power.  The  curious 
worship  of  the  bear,  which  is  found  among  American  Indians,  Ainu,  and  others,  runs  through 
all  the  Hyperboreans  of  the  Old  World.  From  the  Tuuguses  to  the  Finns  the  bear  takes 
rank,  immediately  after  the  sky  and  the  queen  of  the  under-world,  as  a  divine  being,  particularly 
as  the  lord  of  all  spirits,  a  god  endowed  with  power  and  wisdom  hidden  under  a  bear's  skin. 
Many  superstitions  are  connected  with  the  beast,  and  women  may  not  cross  his  trail,  nor  even 
touch  the  hunting-gear. 

The  Ostiaks  believe  in  a  "  third  world,"  where  there  are  no  more  bodily  ailments;  but 
they  cannot  attain  that  heavenly  state.  They  are  fated  to  pass  only  into  the  "second  world," 
a  far  less  happy  place  of  existence,  lying  somewhere  beyond  the  frozen  ocean,  far  north  of  the 
estuary  of  their  great  river,  the  Ob.  Belief  in  Shamanism  governs  their  whole  life.  Nowhere 
else  does  the  wizard,  or  medicine-man,  enjoy  more  influence  than  amongst  them.  The  brave 
man,  they  say,  may  possess  muscular  strength,  but  the  Shaman  possesses  the  wisdom  which  can 
make  that  strength  useless  or  effective.  The  man  of  strong  sinew  may  draw  the  bow  or  hurl 
the  dart,  but  the  course  of  the  arrow  or  the  spear  is  directed  by  the  Shaman. 

The  people  of  Yakutsk,  the  largest  province  in  Siberia,  are  of  Turki  stock,  very  energetic 
and  versatile.  Their  territory  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  River  Lena.  Yakutsk  is  said  to  be  the 
coldest  place  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  During  a  part  of  the  winter  the  thermometer  goes 
down  to  58°  Fahr.  below  zero,  and  the  ground  is  frozen  to  a  depth  of  50  feet.  So  accustomed, 
however,  are  the  people  to  these  low  temperatures,  that  women  may  be  seen  with  bare  arms 
chatting  pleasantly,  as  if  the  Aveather  were  like  that  of  an  English  spring.  The  people  are  of 
middle  height,  of  a  light  copper  colour,  Avith  black  hair,  Avhich  the  men  cut  close  to  the  head. 
Their  faces  express  gentleness  and  indolence  rather  than  the  vigour  and  passion  which  they 
certainly  possess.  As  a  race  they  are  good-tempered,  orderly,  hospitable,  and  industrious. 
They  are  capable  of  long-continued  work,  and  endure  privation  with  much  patience.  Their 


232 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


winter  dwellings  are  made  of  logs  and  wicker,  caulked  with  cow-dung,  and  flanked  with  banks 
of  earth  piled  as  high  as  the  windows.  The  doors  are  made  of  raw  hides.  The  windows  are 
sheets  of  ice  or  thin  semi-transparent  skin.  If  of  ice,  they  are  held  in  place  by  frost.  Water 
is  poured  around  the  edges,  and  quickly  freezes.  The  fact  that  it  takes  a  long  time  to  melt 
this  natural  fastening  of  ice  is  suggestive  of  what  the  temperature  must  be  within  the  hut  as 
well  as  without.  The  fireplace  consists  of  a  wicker  frame,  plastered  over  with  clay;  the  hearth 
is  made  of  beaten  earth,  and  on  it  there  is  always  a  blazing  fire  of  wood,  which  throws  up 
sparks  to  the  roof.  In  summer  the  people  live  in  tents. 

If  the  Yakuts  could  choose  their  food  from  the  limited  variety  the  country  affords,  they 
would  prefer  horse-flesh.  They  have  an  adage  that  it  is  the  highest  destiny  of  man  to  eat 
much  meat  and  grow  fat  upon  it,  and  whenever  circumstances  permit  they  practically 
demonstrate  their  belief  in  the  adage  by  inordinate  feeding.  It  used  to  be  said  that  four 

Yakuts  could  eat  a  horse! 

Some  travellers  describe  the  Yakuts  as  pagans,  but 
those  who  have  been  most  recently  among  them  call 
them  Christians.  The  method  of  their  conversion  was 
extraordinary.  It  appears  that  the  Russian  priests  of 
the  Greek  Church  being  unable  to  make  much  headway 
against  their  superstitions,  a  ukase  was  issued,  setting 
forth  that  the  good  and  loyal  nation  of  the  Yakuts 
were  thought  worthy,  and  were  consequently  admitted 
into  the  Eussiaii  Church,  to  become  a  part  of  the 
Czar's  Christian  family,  and  entitled  to  all  the  privileges 
enjoyed  by  the  rest  of  his  children.  This  audacious 
proclamation,  it  appears,  was  attended  with  extraordinary 
success.  The  new  Christians  speedily  adopted  the  faith 
with  which  they  were  thus  arbitrarily  credited,  and  the 
Eussian  priests  have  now  established  their  sway  over  the 
Yakuts,  although  the  sorceries  of  Shamanism  still  in- 
fluence their  ordinary  life. 

The  Giliaks,  but  few  in  number  (about  5,000),  are 
representative  of  a    different    racial    stock  from   that  of 
the  more  powerful   tribes  who  inhabit   adjoining  lands. 
Their  physique  and  temperament   are   Mongolian  in 
character.     Their  eyes  are  small,  and  sparkle  with  a  dull 
light.     They  have  squat  noses,  thick  lips,  prominent  cheek- 
bones, and  more  beard  than  is  generally  found  in  people 
i      of  Mongolian    stock.      In    stature    they  are   diminutive. 

The  colour  of  the  skin  is  tawny,, like  that  ;of.  the ;  Chinese.  The  hair  is  black,  but  not  abundant; 
it  is  tied  up  in  a  long  tail,  and  neither  shaven  nor  cut,  as  with  the  Manchus  and  Golds. 

The  country  of  the  Giliaks  is  restricted  to  the  region 'embraced  in  .the  Valley  of  the 
Lower  Amur  to  the  Okhotsk  Sea,  and  their  villages  are  not  numerous.  Being  farther  from 
the  Manchus  than  the  Tunguses,  the  Giliaks  are  wilder  than  the  latter,  and  have  a;  higher 
idea  of  tribal  and  individual  liberty.  Acknowledging  ;no  ,  master,  they  are  governed  wholly 
by  custom.  They  do  not  cultivate  the  land,  bat  subsist  entirely  on  fish.  The  ; flesh:  of 
such  animals  as  they  may  take  in  the  chase  is  reserved  for  extraordinary  occasions/  when 
with  a  little  millet  it  converts  what  would  otherwise  be  but  an  ordinary  meal,  into  a 
sumptuous  banquet. 

Their  summer  clothing  is  made  of  the  skin  of  salmon.  The  skin  is  stripped  off  the  fish 
with  great  dexterity,  and  by  beating  with  a  mallet  the  scales  are  removed  and  the  skin  is 
made  supple.  The  Giliak  men  and  women  dress  very  much  alike,  which  indeed  is  true  also 
of  the  Golds,  who  are  hardly  distinguishable  from  the  Giliaks  in  appearance,  manners,  and 


rlLIAK'    WOMAX. 


A    G1LIAK    MAN. 


A   GILIAK    WOMAN. 


TWO   TUNG  USES. 


TWO   GOLDS. 


234 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


customs.  Among  both  peoples  women  occupy  a  low  position.  A  blouse  fastened  in  front  is 
the  outer  garb  of  both  sexes;  but  a  number  of  small  metal  disks,  about  the  size  of  a  sixpence, 
fastened  around  the  bottom  edge  of  the  garment,  distinguishes  the  gentler  sex.  The  blouse 
of  the  men  is  confined  round  the  waist  by  a  belt,  from  which  are  suspended  a  number  of 
articles  required  for  daily  use.  They  consist  of  a  large  knife,  a  Chinese  pipe,  an  iron 
instrument  for  cleaning  the  pipe,  steel  for  striking  a  light,  a  bone  for  smoothing  fish-skins 
and  loosening  knots,  a  bag  of  fish-skin  for  tinder,  and  a  tobacco-poucli,  which  last  article  is 
frequently  made  of  the  strong  skin  of  the  sturgeon. 

The  Russians  have  tried  to  Christianise  and  to  educate  the  Giliaks,  but  their  efforts  have 
not  produced  any  satisfactory  results.  Neither  the  Giliaks  nor  the  Golds  have  any  written 
signs,  and  they  are  as  obstinate  in  their  paganism  as  ignorance  generally  is  in  clinging  to 
the  beliefs  it  has  formed.  They  have  many  superstitions.  They  believe  that  the  carrying  of 
fire  in  or  out  of  a  house,  even  in  a  pipe,  is  likely  to  bring  bad  fortune  in  hunting  or  fishing; 
and  they  are  fatalists.  If  one  falls  into  the  water,  the  others  will  not  help  him  out,  holding 
that  the  accident  is  caused  by  a  superior  power,  in  opposition  to  whose  will  it  would  be  both 
wicked  and  futile  to  act. 

The  treatment  of  the  dead  varies  among  different  sections  of  the  Giliaks.  Some  tribes 
burn  their  dead  on  funeral  pyres,  and  build  low  frames  over  the  ashes;  others  place  the 
bodies,  wrapped  in  bark-cloth,  into  forks  of  trees,  out  of  the  reach  of  wild  animals,  until  the 
ground  is  prepared  to  receive  them.  The  soul  of  the  Giliak  is  supposed  to  pass  at  death 
into  his  favourite  dog,  which  is  therefore  fed  with  dainty  food  until  the  Shaman  has  prayed 
the  soul  out  again,  when  the  animal  is  sacrificed  upon  the  grave  of  its  master,  whose  spirit  is 
supposed  to  exist  in  the  nether-world  in  the  same  manner,  following  the  same  pursuits  and 
indulging  the  same  tastes,  as  in  the  world  above. 

The  Chukchis,  Koriaks,  and  Kamchadales  fill  the  Chukchi  and  Kamchatka  Peninsulas, 
and  occupy  a  portion  of  Sakhalin  and  of  the  opposite  mainland  about  the  Lower  Amur.  In 
former  times  the  -  Chukchis  lived  almost  entirely  on  their  immense  herds  of  reindeer,  but  now 
so  many  of  these  have  died  that  the  people  are  obliged  to  hunt  the  seal  and  the  walrus.  They 

are  pagans  and  nominal 
Christians,  numbering 
about  12,000. 

The  Koriaks  may 
be  the  parent  stock  of 
all  sub-Arctic  races, 
except  the  Hairy  Ainu. 
Some  are  nomads; 
but  others,  who  have 
come  in  contact  with 
Russians,  live  in 
villages.  They  number 
about  5,000,  and  are 
generally  in  poverty 
and  misery.  Travellers 
give  them  a  very  good 
character.  A  harsh 
word  is  never  spoken 
against  their  women, 
and  the  children  are 
treated  kindly.  The 
Koriaks  rarely  die  a 
natural  death.  When 
A  GROUP  OF  GOLDS.  no  longer  capable  of 


PERSIA 


235 


enduring  the  hardships  connected  with 
their  nomad  life,  they  have  no  desire 
to  live;  and  so  the  aged  are  dispatched 
(as  in.  Fiji)  by  their  considerate 
children.  The  bodies  of  the  dead 
are  burned.  Though  Shamanists  in 
religion,  like  most  Siberian  tribes, 
they  offer  oblations,  at  least  twice  a 
year,  to  ensure  a  plentiful  catch  of 
fish  and  seals,  and  a  prosperous  season 
generally.  This  is  in  addition  to  the 
sacrifices  offered  by  the  Shamans,  or 
priests. 

The  Kamchadales,  or  aborigines 
of  the  Kamchatka  Peninsula,  differ 
both  in  language  and  in  appearance 
from  their  neighbours,  the  Koriaks. 
They  are  nominally  Christians,  and 
now  number  about  3,000,  having  been 
greatly  reduced  by  disease  and  famine. 
Some  of  the  northern  islands  of  the 
Kurile  Archipelago  also  contain  Kam- 
chadales. Travellers  speak  favourably 
of  them.  Their  huts  are  scrupulously 
clean  inside.  They  spear  the  salmon 
in  summer,  and  cultivate  rye,  potatoes, 
and  turnips,  and  keep  a  few  cattle. 
In  business  they  are  mere  children, 
and  a  glass  of  spirits  will  tempt 
them  to  part  with  the  most  costly 
fur.* 


TTIXGUsES,    WITH    HEINDEER. 


PERSIA. 


THE  Persians  once  possessed  an  empire  extending  from  the  Bosphorus  to  the  Indus.  They 
are  often  called  Qajar,  from  the  tribal  name  of  the  reigning  dynasty.  Now  their  country  is 
restricted  to  little  more  than  half  of  the  high  tableland  between  the  Tigris  Valley  and  that 
of  the  Indus.  The  total  area  of  Persia,  called  by  the  natives  Iran,  is  about  630,000  square 
miles,  and  its  population  is  estimated  at  9,000,000.  The  Persian  or  Iranian  group  comprises 
the  inhabitants  not  only  of  Persia  proper,  but  also  of  Afghanistan,  Baluchistan,  Bokhara,  and 
Central  Asia  generally.  In  Central  Asia  more  traces  are  found  of  the  old  Persian  language 
than  in  Persia  itself. 

The  two  primary  Asiatic  types — viz.  the  Caucasian  and  the  Mongolo-Tartar — meet  in  the 
Persians.  They  are  divided  into  so  many  different  branches  that  at  first  sight  the  country 
appears  to  be  inhabited  by  several  distinct  races.  The  Tajiks,  as  the  Persians  call  themselves, 
the  Kurds,  the  Luris,  the  Leks,  and  the  Baluchis  are  all  offshoots  of  the  Iranian  branch  of 
the  Caucasian  stem.  There  has  been  a  copious  blending  with  Turkish  and  Usbeg  stocks,  and 
pure  Iranian  Persians  must  necessarily  be  rare. 


236 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


The  ancient  Persians  were  celebrated 
for  manly  beauty,  tall  stature,  pleasing 
faces,  and  the  good  looks  of  their  women. 
The  modern  Persians  have  not  deteriorated 
in  this  respect.  In  form  they  are  tall 
and  graceful,  with  oval  faces.  Their 
features  are  clearly  marked  and  of  Cau- 
casian type,  but  suggesting  delicacy  rather 
than  strength.  Their  hair  is  black, 
luxuriant,  and  glossy,  while  the  eyes  are 
unusually  attractive,  being  dark,  full,  and 
luminous. 

A  gentleman  who  held  a  professional 
appointment  in  Persia  for  many  years, 
and  was  intimate  with  people  of  all 
classes,  was  favourably  impressed  by  their 
character.  He  describes  the  Persian  as 
easy-going,  and  always  ready  to  make 
things  as  pleasant  as  possible  for  every 
one  else.  Unlike  most  Asiatics,  he  is 
well  disposed  to  the  foreigner,  extremely 
hospitable,  and  fairly  honest  in  his  deal- 
ings. Persians  of  pure  blood  have  a  quick 
apprehension,  a  ready  wit,  and  a  persua- 
sive manner.  They  are  fluent  in  oratory, 
and  have  more  sense  of  beauty  than  the 
Turks.  As  a  parent  the  Persian  is  kind 
and  indulgent  to  his  children,  and  as  a 
son  he  always  pays  the  utmost  respect 
to  his  parents.  He  addresses  his  father 
as  "master,"  and  unless  requested  to  do 
so  will  not  sit  down  in  his  presence. 
He  never  ceases  to  love  and  reverence  his  mother.  So  universal  is  the  sense  of  filial  devotion 
that  an  undutiful  son  or  daughter  is  hardly  known  in  all  the  country.  Kespect  for  the  aged 
is  general,  and  much  charity  is  shown  to  the  poor.  Indeed,  most  of  the  rich  have  regular 
pensioners — old  servants  or  poor  relations — who  live  on  their  bounty.  There  is  no  institution 
in  Persia  corresponding  to  the  English  workhouse,  yet  in  ordinary  times  death  from  privation 
is  unknown.  On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  Persian  is  a  great  liar.  So 
prevalent  is  lying  in  all  ranks  of  society  that  it  is  hardly  considered  an  insult  for  one  man  to 
call  another  a  liar.  It  may  truly  be  said  that  the  Oriental  tendency  to  exaggerate  is  carried 
to  an  extreme  among  the  Persians, 

Their  culture,  industry,  readiness  of  address,  and  subtlety — in  a  word,  the  combination  of 
their  good  and  bad  qualities — have  earned  for  the  Persians  the  reputation  of  making  first-rate 
diplomatists,  negotiators,  and  brokers.  It  is  perhaps  owing  to  their  natural  politeness  and 
vanity  that  titles  are  so  extraordinarily  common  in  Persia.  "Mirza"  (learned)  is  prefixed  to 
the  name,  or  "Khan"  or  "Beg"  appended.  Pious  people  are  styled  "Hadji,"  the  title  given 
to  a  pilgrim  to  Mecca;  or  "  Kerbelai "  or  "  Meshedi,"  from  pilgrimages  made  to  other  places. 
It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  the  Persians  are  cruel.  For  murder,  theft,  and  political 
offences  savage  sentences  are  imposed  and  carried  out  in  a  cold-blooded  manner. 

The  Persian  dresses  so  as  to  display  his  physical  advantages  in  the  best  light.  Men 
generally  wear  an  unstarched  shirt  of  cotton,  sewn  with  white  silk;  and  when  they  can  afford 
it,  elaborately  embroidered  round  the  neck.  It  is  without  collar,  the  sleeves  are  loose  and 


PERSIA 


237 


without  wristbands,  and  it  seldom  comes  below  the  hips.  The  trousers,  or  zerejumah,  of 
the  upper  classes  are  made  of  cloth,  while  the  lower  classes  have  trousers  of  white,  blue,  or 
red  cotton.  They  are  held  up  by  a  cord  of  red  or  green  silk,  worn  round  the  waist.  When 
at  work  or  when  running,  the  working  classes  tuck  up  the  ends  of  the  trousers  under  this 
cord,  and  leave  the  leg  bare  to  the  middle  of  the  thigh.  Over  the  shirt  and  zerejumah  comes 
the  alka-luk,  or  closely  fitting,  collarless  garment,  open  in  the  front  and  with  sleeves  tight  to 
the  elbow.  Above  this  is  the  coat,  sometimes  of  coloured  satin,  gold-embroidered,  or  coloured 
calico,  according  to  the  wearer's  means.  Like  the  alka-luk,  it  is  open  in  front,  and  shows 
the  shirt.  The  length  of  the  coat  denotes  the  class  of  the  wearer.  The  military  and  official 
classes  and  upper  servants  of  the  nobility  wear  it  short,  not  descending  below  the  knee. 
Priests,  merchants,  lawyers,  doctors,  and  others  wear  it  so  long  that  it  touches  the  heels. 
The  long  juba,  or  cloth  cloak,  must  also  be  mentioned.  The  kemmerbund,  or  helt,  is  a 
characteristic  article  of  apparel.  Among  priests,  merchants,  and  traders  it  consists  of  muslin 
or  cotton  cloth.  Merchants  and  the  literary  class — the  Mirzas — carry  in  it  a  pen-case  and  roll 
of  paper,  while  all  classes  use  its  folds  as  pockets.  The  priests  generally  wear  a  white  turban, 
and  so  also  do  many  of  the  merchants.  The  national  hat,  however,  is  the  kola.  It  consists 
of  dark  cloth  or  sheep-skin  over  a  pasteboard  frame.  The  most  expensive  are  made  of  the 
black  skin  of  the  foetal  lamb.  The  bulk  of  the  people  wear  coloured  lamb-skin  or  sheep- 
skin hats  with  the  wool  long.  Fashion  in  hats  is  constantly  changing,  but  does  not  affect 
their  peculiar  form  except  to  increase  or  diminish  the  height  by  an  inch  or  .two. 

The  women  also  wear  trousers,  which,  however,  are  very  wide.  Frequently  each  leg  is 
wider  than  the  skirt  of  an  ordinary  gown.  The  trousers  of  ladies  of  high  rank  are  made  of 
very  rich  material,  such  as  gold  brocade,  and  are  decorated  with  pearls  and  other  ornaments. 
Persian  ladies  have  been  known  to  wear  as  many  as  ten  or  eleven  pairs  at  once,  one  over 
the  other. 

Chillau  (boiled  rice)  and  pillau  (also  of  rice),  but  in  a  greasy  and  pudding-like  form, 
are  among  the  chief  articles  of  diet  in  Persia.  Fruit,  sweetmeats,  and  sherbet  are  freely 
taken.  In  spite  of  the  Koran,  which  prohibits  its  use,  wine  plays  a  conspicuous  part  in 
Persian  life.  Tobacco  is  consumed  in  large  quantities  by  means  of  the  nargliileh,  in  which 
the  smoke  is  cooled 
by  being  drawn  over 
water  before  coming 
into  the  mouth. 

In  Persia  air- 
dried  bricks  are  used 
for  building.  These 
bricks  are  often  made 
of  earth  or  rubbish 
from  the  roads,  and 
houses  in  conse- 
quence do  not  last 
very  long.  The  bricks 
of  old  buildings  are, 
however,  used  in  the 
construction  of  new 
ones.  "Houses, 
palaces,  and  whole 
villages  are  aban- 
doned for  a  whim,  on 
account  of  evil  prog- 
nostics, or  in  case 
of  death"  (Ratzel).  A  GROUP  OF  GILIAKS. 


238 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


The  Iranians  are  the  more  intelligent  part  of 
the  population.  To  them  chiefly  are  due  the  arts, 
philosophy,  science,  and  poetry  for  which  Persia  has 
been  famous  for  many  centuries.  Among  them  a 
number  of  the  ancient  sect  of  fire- worshippers  still 
survive.  These  are  the  Guebres.  They  are  a  re- 
markably pure  race,  for  they  have  never  intermarried 
with  other  people.  The  Guebres  are  Parsis,  the 
word  being  derived  from  Pars,  an  ancient  province 
of  Persia,  from  which  the  country  takes  its  name. 
Parsi  is  the  name  given  to  the  fire- worshippers 
in  India,  who,  flying  from  religious  persecution  at 
home,  established  themselves  at  Bombay. 

Special  mention  must  be  made  of  the  colony 
of  Nestorians,  of  whom  there  are  about  30,000  in 
the  north-western  provinces.  They  have  become 
distinguished  among 'the  sectarians  of  the  world  for 
the  devotion  with  which  they  have  preserved  the 
doctrines  of  Nestorius,  who  was  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople in  the  year  A.D.  430.  In  Persia  they 
are  called  Nasranee.  They  are  Chaldeans,  and  their 
language  as  they  speak  it  to-day  is  Chaldaic. 

The  Kurds  of  the  north,  one  of  the  sub-tribes 
of  the  old  Iranic  branch,  are  as  rugged  and  wild  in 
character  as  the  region  they  inhabit.  They  are  the 
most  turbulent  of  the  tribes  over  whom  the  Persian 
ruler  attempts  to  exercise  authority.  Their  fierce 
aspect  is  in  keeping  with  the  deeds  of  brigandage 
and  murder  for  which  they  are  notorious.  Though 
classed  as  Iranian  and  apparently  of  Caucasian  stock, 
the  Kurds  are  rather  puzzling  to  the  ethnologist. 
Polak  says  of  them,  that  in  colour  of  hair,  skin, 
and  eyes  they  are  so  little  different  from  the 
northern,  especially  the  Teutonic  breed,  that  they 
might  easily  be  taken  for  Germans.  They  are  prob- 
ably a  mixed  race.  Professor  Keane,  speaking  of 
the  Kurds  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  Valley  (which 
is  included  in  Turkey  in  Asia),  says  they  appear  to  represent  the  aboriginal  pre-Aryan  race, 
which  at  a  remote  period  extended  almost  continuously  from  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Caucasus  throughout  the  whole  of  the  present  Armenia,  Luristan,  and  Kurdistan.  He  considers 
them  to  be  the  Allophylian  race  spoken  of  by  Herodotus.  The  word  Kurd  is  doubtless  a 
corruption  of  Carduchi,  whom  Xeuophon  mentions  as  inflicting  so  much  damage  on  the  10,000 
Greeks  retreating  from  Artaxerxes.  The  Kurds  are  wanderers,  and  to  this  day  make  their 
winter  quarters  in  the  ramifying  caverns  where  Xenophon  found  the  Carduchi.  They  have  a 
reputation  for  honour  as  well  as  courage,  and  in  Persia  the  Shah  entrusts  his  safety  to  Kurdish 
officers  in  preference  to  any  others. 

In  Central  and  Southern  Persia  the  more  important  of  the  Iranic  tribes  are  the  Luris 
and  Bakhtians.  Together  they  number  about  500,000,  of  whom  at  least  200,000  are  Bakhtians. 
They  are  brave  and  warlike,  inhabiting  the  Bakhtian  Mountains,  and  yield  only  a  half-hearted 
obedience  to  the  Shah.  They  are  very  poor,  and  frugal  in  their  diet.  A  former  chief  of  the 
Bakhtians  broke  through  the  primitive  habits  of  his  race.  He  built  himself  a  palace  at 
Changanghove,  and  furnished  it  with  articles  imported  from  Europe.  His  style  of  living  was 


By  permission  of  Messrs.  Newton  &  Co.,  3,  Fitet  Street,  E.  C'. 
A   PERSIAN   HORSE   SOLDIER. 


From  a  photo  lent  by  Hassan  Ml  Khan. 


A    PERSIAN    DERVISH. 


240 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


By  permission  of  Me 


Newton  &  Co.,  3,  Fleet  Street,  E.C. 

A   GROUP   OF  DERVISHES   (RELIGIOUS   MENDICANTS),    PERSIA. 


in  strong  contrast  with  that  of  his  subjects,  whose  black  goafs-hair  tents  were  pitched  in 
hundreds  on  the  hillsides  and  in  the  hollows  of  the  surrounding  country.  It  was  his  habit 
every  morning  to  take  a  certain  pill  supposed  to  have  the  power  of  preserving  him  from  any  evil. 
It  was  made  of  ruby,  the  precious  stone  being  ground  fine  and  mixed  with  paste.  Its  virtue 
failed  to  avert  the  catastrophe  which  closed  the  chief's  career.  He  had  secretly  collected  a 
store  of  arms,  and  the  Shah  in  time  carne  to  suspect  his  ambitious  projects.  The  chief  of 
the  Bakhtians  was  accordingly  invited  to  visit  the  Shah  at  his  palace  in  Ispahan.  Violating 
the  sadred  rites  of  hospitality,  the  Shah  caused  him  to  be  assassinated.  Deprived  of  its 
leader,  the  intended  revolt  of  the  Bakhtians  fell  through. 

The  Persians  are  for  the  most  part  Mohammedans  of  the  Shiah  sect.  This  is  the  most 
fanatical  of  the  Moslem  sects.  It  denies  the  right  of  the  first  four  Caliphs  and  their  immediate 
successors  to  the  Caliphate,  and  asserts  that  Ali  was  the  true  successor  of  Mohammed.  The 
laws  of  the  Persians  are  based  on  the  precepts  of  the  Koran. 


CHAPTER   XI. 
ARABIA,    SYRIA,    PALESTINE,   ASIA    MINOR,   AND  ARMENIA. 


ARABIA. 

THE  Arabs  are  generally  regarded  as  the  most  interesting  as  well  as  the  most  picturesque 
and  romantic  race  of  people  in  the  East.  Their  country  is  the  great  south-western  peninsula 
of  Sinai,  having  an  area  of  1,230,000  square  miles.  The  population  is  about  5,000,000.  These 
low  figures  (in  proportion  to  the  vastness  of  Arabia)  are  explained  by  the  fact  that  at  least 
420,000  square  miles  of  the  country  are  desert,  unproductive,  and  uninhabitable. 

The  Arabs  are  one  of  the  extensive  Semitic  families,  differing  from  each  other  in  some 
details,  but  in  all  important  racial  characteristics  essentially  Caucasian  in  type.  Few  countries 
contain  a  more  homogeneous  population.  They  are  a  remarkably  handsome  race,  lithe  and 
well  formed.  The  typical  Bedouin  of  the  desert  has  bronze-coloured  skin,  black  coarse  hair, 
large  eyes,  dark  and  bright,  aquiline  nose,  and  features  generally  well  shaped.  The  beard  and 
moustache  are  apt  to  be  scanty.  On  the  average  the  European  excels  the  Arab  in  physical 
strength.  The  inferiority  of  the  Bedouin  in  height  and  bulk  may  be  put  down  to  the  hardships 
endured  for  generation  after  generation.  The  Arabs  are  clean  in  their  persons,  and  take  great 
care  of  their  teeth,  which  are  generally  fine.  Courage  and  temperance  are  the  Arab's  leading 
•virtues,  while  his  chief  failings  are  a  lack  of  scruple  in  pecuniary  dealings  and  a  spirit 


By  permission  of  Messrs.  Newton  &  Co.,  3,  Fleet  Street,  E.G. 

PRISONERS   AND   JAILORS   IN   PRISON- YARD,   NAR-HA-BAND,    PERSIA. 
241 


242 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


of  revenge.  The  basis  of  the  Arab  character  is  frauk  and  bold.  His  intellect  is  active,  his 
perceptive  faculties  acute,  and  his  judgment  sound.  Vambery  says,  in  contrasting  the  Arab 
with  the  Turk,  "The  Turk  is  a  man  of  religious  sentiment  only;  the  Arab  is  a  religious 
thinker."  The  jealous  and  fiery  temperament  of  the  Arabs  has  always  been  the  source  of  feuds 
among  themselves.  They  are  quick  to  resent  any  injury,  and  are  extremely  sensitive  to  the 
slightest  violation  of  established  etiquette.  Quarrels  frequently  arise  which  end  in  bloodshed. 
Their  code  of  law  permits  the  shedding  of  blood  to  be  atoned  for  by  the  payment  of  money 
or  property,  otherwise  the  wild  tribes  would  long  ago  have  exterminated  themselves.  They 
are  kept  back  in  the  general  march  of  progress  by  their  want  of  organising  power  and 
incapacity  for  combined  action. 

Hospitality  is  a  leading  trait  of  the  Arab  character;  it  is  regarded  as  a  sacred  duty.  The 
most  lawless  Arab  never  fails  in  his  obligations  as  a  host.  The  life  and  property  of  a 
stranger  are  always  safe  under  his  roof.  Nothing  will  excuse  a  breach  of  this  duty  when 
a  guest  has  once  rested  his  hand  on  the  tent-pole  of  a  Bedouin  or  tasted  his  bread  and  salt. 
The  Arab  is  eminently  polite.  Even  the  fierce  nomads  have  a  code  of  etiquette  which 
they  rigidly  observe.  "  Peace  be  with  you "  is  the  usual  salutation.  In  towns,  where 
manners  are  naturally  more  ceremonious,  the  ordinary  morning  greeting  is,  "May  your  day  be 

white."  That  white  is  held  to  be 
an  emblem  of  good  is  further  shown 
by  the  customary  answer,  "May 
yours  be  like  milk." 

The  national  dress  is  simple  but 
picturesque.  The  under-garment  is 
a  long  white  shirt.  Over  this  comes 
a  close-fitting  tunic  of  silk  or  cotton, 
according  to  the  means  of  the  wearer. 
It  is  generally  of  a  striped  material, 
and  is  gathered  in  by  a  girdle  of 
raw  leather.  Then  comes  the  abba, 
or  cloak  of  camel's  hair,  black  or 
with  broad  white  bars,  through  which 
the  arms  are  thrust.  Bed  shoes  are 
worn,  pointed  and  turned  up  at  the 
toes.  The  head-dress  is  peculiar,  but 
highly  practical  and  comfortable.  It 
is  made  of  a  piece  of  cotton  or  silk, 
some  4  feet  square,  with  yellow  or 
red  stripes,  fringed  on  two  sides. 
This  is  doubled  triangularly  and 
thrown  over  the  head,  so  that  the 
two  long  ends  hang  down  over  the 
shoulders,  and  the  third  hangs  down 
the  back.  Bound  the  crown  of  the 
head  is  wound  a  double  wisp  of  brown 
camel's  hair,  partially  twisted.  The 
string  round  the  temples  is  a  pro- 
tection against  sunstroke,  while  the 
eyes  can  be  shaded  by  drawing  the 
ends  of  the  cloth  over  them.  The 
dress  of  the  town-dwelling  Arabs  and 

By  permission  of  Mettr*.  Newton  &  Co.,  3,  Fleet  Strfet~KC.  °f    tlle     S°uth    Arabian    agriculturists 

PERSIAN  LADY  IN  INDOOR  COSTUME.  consists,    for    men,    of    a    blue    shirt 


By  permission  of  Messrs.  Xewlon  tfc  Co.,  3,  Fleet  Street,  E.C. 

PERSIAN    LADIES    IX    OUTDOOR    COSTUME. 


244- 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


BIJ  perm 


Fleet  .Street.  E.  C. 

PERSIAN   LADIES   IN    OUTDOOR   COSTUME. 


with  loose  sleeves,  a  white  apron,  and  a  blue  head-fillet,  round  which  is  twisted  a  yellow 
string.  The  women  wear  trousers  and  brightly  coloured  shifts.  On  their  heads  they  wear 
a  kerchief,  and  over  that  a  broad-brimmed  straw  hat.  They  are  not  veiled.  The  women  are 
fond  of  setting  off  their  simple  attire  with  silver  earrings,  and  even  nose-rings,  and  silver 
bangles  round  the  arm  and  ankle. 

The  weapons  of  the  Arab  consist  as  a  rule  of  a  short  sword  or  dagger,  a  spear,  and  a 
long  flint-lock  gun.  He  is  proud  of  his  weapons,  and  they  are  often  handsomely  ornamented. 
In  South  Arabia  silver  mountings,  often  of  a  costly  kind,  are  used,  and  the  silver  looks 
particularly  well  against  the  dark  skin  of  its  owner. 

The  conditions  under  which  the  town -dwellers  live  naturally  differ  from  those  of  their 
nomad  brethren.  The  houses  in  the  more  important  towns  are  usually  built  two  storeys  or 
more  in  height,  with  ranges  of  apartments  opening  into  a  square  or  inner  court.  Subterranean 
rooms,  called  serflaubs,  are  occupied  during  the  day,  chiefly  for  shelter  from  the  intense  heat. 
The  flat  roofs  are  used  for  the  evening  meal  and  for  sleeping.  "Arabia  is  the  land  of  ruins. 
The  climate,  the  custom  of  building  in  stone,  the  need  of  protection,  the  delight  in  destruction, 
have  covered  the  land  with  the  fragments  of  castles  and  walls;  and  no  small  part  of  the 
population  of  Southern  Arabia  dwells  to-day  in  the  ruins  of  its  forefathers'  houses.  There  is 
hardly  a  bit  of  high  ground  without  relics  of  former  buildings"  (Ratzel).  The  nomads  live 
in  tents,  or  in  huts  made  of  some  light  material,  such  as  reeds  or  straw. 

The  food-stuffs  of  the  Arabs  consist  of  wheat,  barley,  and  maize.  Maize-porridge  is  eaten 
in  South  Arabia.  Oranges,  melons,  cucumbers,  and  many  delicious  fruits  are  abundant,  but 
the  date  is  the  chief  article  of  food  and  the  staple  of  commerce.  It  is  sometimes  called 


ARABIA 


245 


"the  bread  of  the  land"  and  "the  staff  of  life."  Mohammed  enjoined  his  followers  to 
"honour  the  palm-tree,  for  she  is  your  mother."  When  fresh,  the  date  is  about  the  size  of 
a  large  plum,  juicy  and  delicious.  It  bears  no  more  resemblance  to  the  date  exported  in 
boxes  than  does  a  fresh  bunch  of  grapes  to  packed  raisins.  Coffee  is  not  less  associated  with 
the  Arab's  life  than  the  indispensable  date.  The  story  goes  that  it  was  first  discovered  by  a 
wandering  Arab  who  had  made  a  fire  beneath  a  wild  shrub  on  the  edge  of  the  desert.  Soon 
he  inhaled  a  delicious  fragrance  which  was  new  to  him.  He  found  that  it  came  from  the 
roasted  berries  on  the  shrub,  and  to  his  curiosity  we  are  all  indebted  for  the  inestimable 
discovery  of  coffee. 

The  most  important  animals  herded  by  these  people  are  the  horse  and  the  cumel.  In 
South  Arabia  donkeys  are  bred.  These  animals  constitute  their  chief  source  of  wealth. 

Three  classes  of  society  are  usually  distinguished:  viz.  the  townsfolk,  who  are  mostly 
traders  and  artisans;  the  semi-nomads,  who  live  in  tents  or  mud  huts  on  the  edge  of  the 
desert;  and  the  Bedouins,  who  roam  about  the  plains.  In  South  Arabia  the  distinction  is 
drawn  between  the  Shereefs,  who  are  descended  from  the  Prophet;  the  families  who  belong  to 
the  ruling  classes;  and,  thirdly,  the  Bedouins.  Below  these  again  are  the  lower  classes,  the 
Akhdams,  who  perform  humble  but  necessary  duties.  They  are  generally  despised,  and  their 
work  as  tanners,  potters,  or  butchers  is  supposed  to  unfit  them  for  decent  society.  Ratzel 
points  out  that  even  in  Aden,  Avhere  caste  notions  have  no  official  validity,  the  Akhdams 
inhabit  their  own  quarter. 

The  sheikh  is  the  head  of  the  tribe  among  the  nomads,  and  the  title  is  hei'editary.  He 
has  the  power  of  life  and  death,  and  the  duty  of  making  treaties  with  other  tribes  and 
of  settling  disputes  which  arise  in  his  own. 

After  rising  in  the  morning,  the  Arab's  first  care  is  to  perform  his  devotions,  Avith  much 
apparent  earnestness  and  humility.  He  then  seats  himself  or  squats  on  his  carpet,  where  his 
wife  serves  him  with  a  chibouk,  or  pipe,  and  coffee  with  her  own  hands.  She  then  retires  to 
a  respectful  distance,  standing  with  hands  crossed,  till  her  lord's  cup  is  ready.  When  it  is 
returned  to  her,  she  frequently  kisses  his  hand, — a  common  mark  of  respect  in  the  East;  it 
also  serves  to  remind  us  that  among  the  Arabs,  as  among  other  Moslems,  woman  occupies  a 


Photo  by  Le  Grand. 


ARAB    CHILDREN. 


24.6 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


very  subordinate  place.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Arab  treatment  of  slaves  is  more  enlightened. 
The  latter  are  regarded  as  members  of  the  family.  They  dress  like  their  masters,  and  are 
not  obliged  to  wear  any  badge  of  inferiority.  They  may  acquire  property,  and,  like  the  slaves 
of  ancient  Borne,  may  buy  their  freedom  with  their  savings. 

In  matters  of  art  the  Arab  has  not  a  very  wide  scope.  He  is  restricted  by  the  Prophet's 
command  not  to  imitate  any  living  thing.  It  is  due  to  this  that  geometrical  lines  are  the 
usual  form  of  decoration,  and  very  effective  they  are  in  all  "Arabesque"  work — e.g.  the 
Albambra  Palace.  He  has  a  genuine  love  of  colour,  which  he  displays  on  every  possible 
occasion.  The  earthenware  pottery  of  which  his  scanty  household  utensils — water-jugs  and 
coffee-cups—are  made  is  often  handsomely  decorated,  and  is  a  favourite  subject  for  his 
artistic  skill. 

In  his  courtship  the  Arab  often  displays  a  great  deal  of  gallantry,  though  the  chances  for 
meeting  and  looking  upon  the  face  of  his  beloved  one  are  exceedingly  few.  Europeans  express 
their  devotion  by  languishing  and  sighs.  The  Bedouins  show  the  ferocity  of  their  nature 
even  in  their  love-making.  They  have  been  known  to  cut  and  slash  themselves  severely,  just 

to  prove  the  reality  and 
depth  of  their  affections. 
As  might  be  expected, 
the  town-dwelling  Arabs 
are  more  temperate  in 
their  outward  demonstra- 
tions. This  the  Bedouins 
attribute  to  the  de- 
generacy resulting  from 
a  settled  life.  The  Arab 
marriage  ceremony  is 
simple.  In  the  female 
compartment  of  her 
father's  tent  the  bride  is 
decked  out  in  her  wed- 
ding finery,  previously 
provided  by  the  bride- 
groom. Mounted  on  a 
camel  and  accompanied 
by  her  female  relations, 
she  is  conducted  to  the 
camp  of  her  husband. 
The  young  companions  of 
the  wedded  pair  indulge 
in  dancing,  and  other 
sports  and  festivities  are 
kept  up  for  some  days 
before  the  bride  and 
bridegroom  are  allowed 
to  settle  down  to  married 
life.  They  are  then 
escorted  home,  and 
"marriage  by  capture" 
survives  in  a  sort  of 
pantomime  which  is  per- 
formed on  this  occasion. 
AN  ARAB  MOTHER  AND  CHILD.  \\rives  are  generally 


Photo  by  Lekeyian  &  Co.} 


SYRIA 


247 


purchased,  and  girls 
are  sometimes  bartered 
for,  others  being  given  in 
exchange. 

Some  peculiar  cere- 
monies are  practised  at 
Arab  funerals.  It  is  the 
custom  among  certain 
tribes  to  bury  with  the 
dead  man  his  sword,  tur- 
ban, and  girdle.  Women, 
but  not  men,  wear 
mourning.  In  the  houses 
of  the  dead  and  in  the 
processions  to  the  burial- 
place  female  mourners, 
hired  for  the  occasion, 
howl  most  horribly,  beat 
their  arms,  tear  their 
hair,  and  behave  generally 
like  furies.  Sunset  is 
the  usual  time  for  funerals 
to  take  place.  The 
mullet lis  read  passages 
from  the  Koran  over  the 
grave,  in  which  the  body 
is  laid  on  its  side  with 
the  face  towards  Mecca. 

The  Arabs  are  fanati- 
cal adherents  of  Islam, 
which  had  its  starting- 
place  in  the  desert.  The 
Koran  is  the  •  basis  of 
their  laws.  Their  religion 
dominates  their  individual 
lives  as  well  as  their 
political  existence.  The 
holy  cities  of  Mecca  and 
Medina  are  within  their 
territory,  and  the  con- 
stant procession  of  devout  pilgrims  to  these  places  naturally  stimulates  the  pride  and  zeal  of 
the  Arabs  in  their  religion. 


Photo  by  Lekeyia 


\_Cairo. 


A    BEDOUIN. 


SYRIA. 

THE  word  Syria  is  an  abbreviated  form  of  Assyria,  the  name  by  which  one  of  the  great 
empires  of  antiquity  was  known.  The  territorial  extent  of  the  ancient  empire  has  i>een 
reduced  even  more  than  its  name.  At  one  time  it  spread  over  a  vast  region  in  Western  Asia. 
N~ow  the  country  which  is  called  Syria  is  restricted  to  a  mere  strip,  the  western  shore  of 
which  is  washed  by  the  Mediterranean,  while  its  eastern  limit  is  in  the  arid  steppes  fringing 
the  Desert  of  Arabia.  Its  utmost  length  is  430  miles  from  the  Taurus  Mountains  in  the 
north  to  Arabia  Petrsea  in  the  south.  In  breadth  it  averages  about  100  miles.  Its  total  area 


248 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


is  115,000  square  miles,  of  which  about  12,000  constitute  Palestine.  The  population  of  Syria 
has  been  variously  estimated.  A  mean  between  the  highest  and  lowest  figures  would  be 
2,000,000,  which  is  as  close  to  the  correct  number  as  it  is  possible  to  get. 

The  Syrians  are  a  mixed  race.  The  Bedouins  have  pushed  their  way  in  among  them 
wherever  the  plains  extend.  In  the  settled  regions  the  ancient  Syrian  race,  which  belongs  to 
the  Aramaic  branch  of  the  Semites,  exists  only  as  a  rare  survival.  The  basis  of  the  people 
has,  however,  remained  Semitic.  Syrians  of  the  present  day  may  be  regarded  as  a  blend  of 
various  races,  in  which  there  are  Arab,  Turkish,  and  Hellenic  elements. 

Early  and  continuous  blending  with  people  of  the  Hellenic  stock  has  certainly  not 
impaired  the  excellent  physical  and  mental  characteristics  derived  from  their  Semitic  forefathers. 
They  are  a  decidedly  handsome  race,  if  we  may  judge  them  by  the  Christian  section  of  the 
community.  They  are  highly  intellectual  and  readily  assimilate  European  ideas,  while 
retaining  the  distinctive  traits  of  their  own  nationality.  Their  race  has  been  celebrated  from 
the  earliest  times  for  its  enterprising  spirit,  love  of  travel,  and  aptitude  for  trading.  Syrian 
merchants  are  to  be  met  with  in  London,  Liverpool,  Manchester,  Marseilles,  and  other  centres 
of  commerce. 

The  national  religion  is  Mohammedanism,  and  the  followers  of  Islam  are  three  times 
more  numerous  than  the  devotees  of  other  cults.  Members  of  the  Greek  Church  and  Armenians 
are  among  the  latter.  Of  those  who  do  not  follow  the  Prophet,  the  strongest  in  point  of 
numbers  and  the  most  remarkable  generally  are  the  Druses.  As  another  instance  of  the 
variety  of  faith  to  be  found  in  this  small  country  may  be  mentioned  the  Ansariebs.  They  are 
held  in  contempt  by  Christians  and  Mussulmans  alike,  who  refuse  to  take  their  evidence  in 
courts  of  law. 

The  Druses  are  Syrian  mountaineers,  and  number  90,000.  They  inhabit  the  northern 
range  of  Mount  Lebanon,  and  the  Jebel  Druse  a  mountain  district  south-west  of  Damascus. 
Physically  and  mentally  they  are  a  fine  race.  Their  figures  are  tall,  sinewy,  and  well 
proportioned.  Their  features,  of  the  Caucasian  type,  are  strongly  defined  and  regular.  Their 
stern  and  warlike  but  dignified  expression  gives  them  a  savage  aspect.  They  are  brave, 
resolute,  and  industrious,  and  when  at  war  with  other  people  are  cruel  and  even  treacherous. 
They  are  also  independent,  reserved,  and  proud. 


Photo  by  Lektyian  &  Co.] 


[Cairo. 


AN   ARAB   FAMILY. 


PALESTINE 


249 


Nearly  every  Druse  in  the 
mountains  can  read  and  write.  Wine 
and  tobacco  they  never  touch.  Their 
women  are  virtuous.  Divorce  is 
almost  unknown  amongst  them, 
though  it  is  allowed  and  can  be 
easily  effected;  it  is  only  necessary 
that  the  husband  should  tell  his  wife 
three  times  in  the  presence  of  wit- 
nesses that  she  had  better  go  back 
to  her  mother.  The  Druses  have 
carried  the  soil  of  the  valleys  up 
and  along  the  hillsides.  These  are 
laid  out  in  terraces,  planted  with 
mulberry,  olive,  and  vine,  which 
flourish  under  the  constant  care 
bestowed  upon  them.  The  chief 
industry  is  the  production  of  silk. 

The  religion  of  the  Druses  is 
peculiar  and  mysterious.  It  has  a 
Mussulman  foundation,  but  it  em- 
braces Christian  and  Zoroastrian 
elements.  Their  religion  was  first 
taught  in  1029,  but  its  votaries  have 
done  nothing  to  make  it  known 
outside  their  own  circle.  Their  lives 
are  regulated  by  seven  great  prin- 
ciples, which  they  must  profess. 
One  of  them  is  veracity.  This  must 
be  rigidly  observed  in  their  dealings 
with  each  other,  but  not  necessarily 
in  their  intercourse  with  unbelievers — 
that  is  to  say,  all  who  are  not 
Druses.  Another  is  the  recognition 
of  the  unity  of  God.  A  third  is 
complete  separation  from  all  who  do 
not  hold  their  beliefs,  and  are  there- 
fore in  error.  A  fourth  is  mutual  protection  and  support.  They  believe  that  the  number  of  souls 
in  existence  never  varies.  Accordingly  all  the  souls  now  in  life  have  lived  in  some  human 
form  since  the  creation  and  will  continue  to  live  till  the  final  destruction  of  the  world.  Prayer 
is  looked  upon  as  an  unwarrantable  interference  with  the  Almighty. 

Christian  missionaries  have  laboured  among  them  with  very  little  effect.  The  Druses 
will  not  accept  the  teachings  of  others,  whom  they  regard  as  presumptuous  meddlers.  On  the 
other  hand,  they  make  no  attempt  to  extend  their  own  doctrines  by  either  force  or  argument. 
It  is  to  the  remarkable  nature  of  their  religion  that  the  Druses,  according  to  some  writers, 
owe  their  independent  and  exclusive  temper. 

PALESTINE. 

THE  branch  of  the  human  family  inseparably  associated  with  Palestine  is  the  Hebrew. 
Palestine,  or  the  Holy  Land,  lying  to  the  south-west  of  Syria,  fills  the  most  important  place 
in  the  history  of  the  Christian  and  Hebrew  races.  To-day  it  forms  but  a  very  small  part  of 

32 


Photo  by  Bonflls] 


[Beyreut. 


AN   ARAB   SHEIKH. 


25° 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


the  vast  regions  in  Asia  over  which  the  Turk 
holds  sway.  Its  population  is  not  far  short 
of  700,000,  of  whom  between  80,000  and 
100,000  are  Jews.  In  Jerusalem  and  its 
neighbourhood  alone  the  Jews  number  from 
45,000  to  50,000.  At  least  80  per  cent,  of 
the  total  population  are  Mohammedans.  The 
language  most  general!}'  spoken  is  Arabic. 

The  Hebrews  may  be  regarded  as  the 
best  representatives  of  the  Semitic  stock. 
Their  physical  characteristics  are  perhaps  more 
clearly  defined  than  those  of  any  other  people. 
They  have  regular  and  expressive  features; 
oval  face  and  brain-cap;  large  and  often 
aquiline  nose,  depressed  at  the  root;  forehead 
straight,  but  not  high;  black,  almond-shaped 
eyes;  small,  pointed  chin;  glossy  black  hair, 
with  full  beard;  pale  white  skin;  and  stature 
somewhat  below  that  of  the  average  European. 
The  prevailing  type  of  face  is  massive. 

Its  strong  characteristics  make  the  Hebrew 
face  easily  recognisable  in  whatever  part  of 
the  world  it  is  seen.  The  Jewish  laws  and 
usages,  which  forbid  intermixture  with  other 
races,  account  for  their  racial  purity.  The 
barriers  have,  however,  from  time  to  time 
been  broken  down,  and  in  many  places  the 
marks  of  their  intermarriage  with  other  races 
can  be  seen.  Fair-haired,  blue-eyed,  and 
white-skinned  Jews  are  to  be  found  in  England. 
Red-haired  and  red-bearded  Jews  are  known 
in  Germany,  and  tawny-faced  Jews  in  Spain. 
In  Cochin  and  on  the  Malabar  coast  in  India 
Buchanan  states  that  Jews  are  to  be  seen  so 
black  as  to  be  indistinguishable  from  natives 
except  in  form  and  features. 

The  Hebrew  character  is  almost  as  clearly  defined  as  the  face.  Ib  varies  but  little  the 
world  over.  Jews  eagerly  follow  every  occupation  of  a  remunerative  kind.  They  are  often  not 
fastidious  with  regard  to  the  honour  and  dignity  of  the  course  they  pursue.  They  have 
excellent  business  capacity,  but  are  frequently  grasping  and  avaricious.  They  are  keenly  alive 
to  the  "main  chance."  Clannish  within  their  own  race,  they  are  decidedly  hospitable  among 
themselves,  dignified,  and  often  benevolent.  They  take  charge  of  their  own  sick  and  poor 
wherever  they  may  be.  and  are  merciful  to  each  other  in  their  dealings.  Their  wives  rarely 
excite  scandal  by  laxity  of  virtue  or  levity  of  conduct. 

The  intellectual  and  moral  strength  of  the  Jews  brought  them  triumphantly  through  the 
universal  oppression  they  underwent  in  the  Middle  Ages.  To-day  they  are  scattered  about 
the  world,  and  are  without  auy  political  status  of  their  own.  Yet  they  always  make  their 
influence  deeply  felt  on  the  life  of  the  nations  with  which  they  come  in  contact.  Jews  excel 
in  literature,  art,  and  music,  but  finance  is  perhaps  their  special  domain.  In  Germany,  Austria, 
and  recently,  alas!  in  France,  a  political  crusade  is  being  waged  against  them.  Anti-Semitic 
prejudice  is  always  strong  wherever  the  Jews  become  influential. 

The   Jews   have    been  wanderers    from   the  earliest  times,  and  have  always  been  subject  to 


Photo  by  Bonfils] 

A    BRIDE   OF   BETHLEHEM. 


\_Beyreul. 


Photo  by  Sarraffiun  Bros.} 


[Seyreut. 


WOMEN    OF    BETHLEHEM. 
251 


252 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


strange  vicissitudes  of 
fortune.  About  2000  B.  c. 
they  emerged  from 
Mesopotamia  and  settled 
in  Canaan,  or  Palestine. 
Subsequently,  in  conse- 
quence of  famine  in 
their  adopted  land,  the 
patriarch  Jacob,  with  all 
his  family  and  adherents, 
went  into  Egypt.  There 
he  obtained  permission 
to  settle  in  the  land 
of  Goshen.  The  de- 
scendants of  these 
settlers  were  treated  as 
slaves.  A  deliverer  arose 
in  the  person  of  Moses. 
By  him  they  were  led 
out  into  the  wilderness 
of  Sinai,  where  they 
wandered  over  forty 
years — according  to  the 
Old  Testament.  Modern 
critics,  however,  would 
allow  a  much  shorter 
period.  About  1274  B.C., 
under  the  leadership  of 
Joshua,  they  entered 
into  possession  of  Pales- 
tine. Thirteen  hundred 
and  forty  years  later 
Titus,  the  Koman 
governor  of  Syria,  be- 
sieged and  captured 
Jerusalem,  with  horrible 

carnage,  as  narrated  by  Josephus.  He  completely  destroyed  the  Temple,  and  almost  razed  the 
city  to  the  ground.  The  Jews  who  survived  were  driven  from  the  land,  to  seek  refuge  and 
procure  sustenance  as  best  they  could  among  the  different  nations  of  the  earth.  Since  the 
ruin  of  their  city  and  dispersion  of  their  race,  in  the  words  of  Isaac  D'Israeli,  "  the  Jewish 
people  are  not  a  nation,  for  they  consist  of  many  nations  .  .  .  and,  like  the  chameleon,  they 
reflect  the  colour  of  the  spot  they  rest  on." 

The  Jews  have  preserved  from  the  earliest  times  the  striking  customs  which  are  connected 
with  their  religion.  Circumcision  is  performed  on  male  infants  eight  days  after  birth.  On 
the  thirtieth  day  after  the  appearance  of  the  first  male  child  the  ceremony  of  "  redeeming  the 
first-born"  takes  place.  The  father  invites  his  male  friends  and  relatives,  with  the  rabbi,  to 
a  supper,  and  the  mother  invites  the  women.  Before  the  supper  is  over  the  baby  is  brought 
to  the  father.  He  places  it  in  the  arms  of  the  rabbi.  Then  he  puts  as  many  pieces  of 
silver  money  as  he  can  afford  on  a  tray.  "This  is  my  first-born,"  he  says  to  the  rabbi;  "I 
desire  to  redeem  him  according  to  the  commandment  of  God,  written  in  the  Book  of  the 
Law."  "Dost  thou  indeed  desire  to  redeem  this  thy  first-born  son?"  answers  the  rabbi. 
The  father  replies,  "I  greatly  desire  to  redeem  my  son,  and  this  is  the  redemption  money 


By  pel-mission  of  the  Controller  of  her  Majesty's  Stationery  Office. 
A   NATIVE   GUIDE,    PALESTINE. 


PALESTINE 


253 


according  to  the  Law  of  Moses."  The  rabbi  takes  the  money  and  returns  the  child  to  its 
father.  The  latter,  holding  a  cup  of  wine  in  his  hand,  gives  thanks  to  God  for  permitting 
him  to  behold  this  joyful  occasion.  The  rabbi  and  the  father  take  some  of  the  wine.  After 
that  the  rabbi  lifts  up  the  tray  with  the  coins  and  holds  it  over  the  baby's  head,  saying, 
"This  is  instead  of  this;  this  is  in  exchange  for  this;  this  is  in  redemption  of  this;  and  may 
the  child  be  well  instructed  in  our  holy  Law,  enter  in  due  time  into  the  marriage  state,  and 
at  the  last  be  found  full  of  good  works.  Amen."  The  supper  is  then  proceeded  with,  and  the 
evening  is  given  up  to  festivity. 

Early  marriages  are  the  rule  among  the  Jews.  At  Jerusalem  girls  are  usually  married 
at  the  age  of  fifteen.  Youths  become  husbands  at  eighteen.  They  generally  have  large 
families.  Even  the  very  poor  rejoice  at  successive  additions  when  they  happen  to  be  boys. 

There  are  three  ceremonies  in  connection  with  Jewish  weddings — viz.  the  engagement, 
the  betrothal,  and  the  final  marriage  rite.  According  to  rabbinical  law,  a  betrothal  is  not 
merely  a  promise  to  marry,  but  is  looked  upon  as  the  first  step  in  the  marriage  ceremony. 
Ten  persons  at  least  must  be  present,  at  both  a  betrothal  and  a  wedding,  to  give  the  act  due 
publicity  and  solemnity.  At  the  betrothal  the  amount  of  the  bride's  dowry  and  the  date  of 
the  wedding  are  settled.  A  provision  called  the  kethuba  is  arranged  at  the  same  time.  Jews 
in  the  East  attach  great  importance  to  this  institution.  It  settles  upon  the  bride  a  sum 
of  money  which  the  husband  must  pay  to  her  in  the  event  of  a  divorce.  As  it  is  easy  for 
a  Jewish  husband  to  get  a  divorce,  this  arrangement  protects  the  wife  against  being  arbitrarily 
dismissed  from  his  house.  The  wedding  itself  is  long  and  ceremonious,  especially  among  the 
richer  Jews.  The  bride  is  taken  in  procession  from  the  father's  house  to  that'  of  the  bride- 
groom's father.  She  is  conducted  to  a  seat  under  a  canopy  of  yellow  silk  in  the  sola,  or 
principal  room.  After  waiting  a  long  time  the  cry  is  raised,  ''  Behold  the  bridegroom  cometh  !  " 
The  bridegroom  enters,  accompanied  by  the  rabbi  and  his  male  friends.  Except  for  the  fez, 
which  is  commonly  worn  in  the  East,  they  are  all  dressed  very  much  as  they  would  be  at  a 


Mr.  William  Bau] 


JEWISH  LEPERS,  PALESTINE. 


[Philadelphia. 


254 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


wedding  in  England.  The  bride- 
groom takes  his  place  under  the 
canopy  beside  a  table,  on  which 
stands  a  flagon  of  wine  and  some 
glasses.  The  rabbi  takes  his  place 
on  the  opposite  side.  Over  his  head 
is  thrown  a  scarf  of  white  silk,  called 
a  talith.  The  bride  rises  from  her 
seat,  and  is  led  three  times  round 
the  bridegroom.  This  illustrates  the 
saying  of  Jeremiah,  "  The  woman 
shall  compass  a  man."  The  pair  then 
stand  facing  each  other  opposite  the 
rabbi.  He  fills  one  of  the  glasses 
with  wine,  and,  holding  it  in  his 
hand,  repeats  a  prayer.  He  then 
hands  the  cup  to  the  bride  and 
bridegroom  in  turn.  When  each 
has  sipped  it,  the  man  places  on  the 
woman's  finger  a  ring,  saying,  "Be- 
hold, thou  art  sanctified  to  me  by 
this  ring,  according  to  the  Law  of 
Moses  and  of  Israel."  Then  follows 
the  reading  of  the  marriage  contract, 
which  the  bridegroom  and  witnesses 
sign.  The  rabbi  takes  another  glass 
of  wine.  Holding  it  in  his  hand, 
he  pronounces  over  the  wedded  pair 
the  "  Seven  Blessings."  The  married 
couple  also  taste  of  this  glass.  An 
empty  glass  is  then  put  on  the  floor, 
and  the  bridegroom  stamps  on  it 
with  his  boot  till  it  is  crushed  to 
atoms.  In  some  parts  of  the  East,  and  notably  in  Jerusalem,  the  bride  steps  three  times  over 
a  dish  containing  two  live  fishes,  the  emblems  of  fruitfnlness.  As  she  does  so  the  witnesses 
of  the  marriage  repeat  the  command,  "Be  fruitful  and  multiply." 


By  permission  of  Messrs.  Newton  &  Co.,  3,  fleet  Street,  E.G. 

NESTORIAN   TEACHERS   AND   SCHOLARS,   ARMENIA. 


ASIA   MINOR  AND   THE   VALLEY   OF   THE   EUPHRATES   AND   TIGRIS. 

THE  inhabitants  of  Asia  Minor  at  the  present  day  can  hardly  be  said  to  possess  strongly 
marked  characteristics  of  the  several  races  from  which  they  have  sprung.  Turks,  Greeks,  and 
Armenians  are  the  three  chief  ingredients  of  the  mixed  population  of  this  country,  and  they 
must  be  described  in  turn. 

Though  divided  from  Europe  by  two  narrow  straits,  this  westerly  projection  of  Asia  was 
for  many  centuries  the  arena  on  which  the  most  powerful  peoples  of  the  two  continents  did 
battle  to  decide  which  was  the  master  power  that  should  rule  the  world.  It  now  forms  part 
of  the  Asiatic  empire  of  the  Turks.  It  is  a  little  larger  than  France,  but  has  less  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  population  of  that  country.  At  the  same  time  it  is  the  main  source  of  the 
sinew,  the  revenue,  and  the  military  strength  of  the  Ottoman  Empire. 

If  we  go  back  to  the  primary  sources  of  race  derivation,  the  Turk  must  be  said  to  belong 
to  the  Mongolo-Tartar  branch.  The  original  type  has  been  considerably  modified  by  large 
admixture  with  Aryan  races.  The  Turkish  families  who  settled  in  Asia  Minor  under  Ertogrul 


256 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


By  permission  of  Messrs.  Newton  &  Co.,  3,  Fleet  Street,  E.  C. 

A   GROUP   OF   TEACHERS,    AMERICAN   MISSIONARY   SOCIETY,    ARMENIA. 

and  Dundar,  the  founders  of  the  Ottoman  sovereignty,  probably  fused  with  the  Seljuks. 
The  enormous  number  of  their  representatives  at  the  present  time  cannot  be  put  down 
to  natural  increase,  as  the  Turks  were  always  a  fighting  and  destructive  race.  It  points  to 
fusion  with  other  peoples.  Osmanli,  the  name  given  to  the  modern  Turk,  covers  a  hybrid 
race  which  has  absorbed  Asiatic,  Armenian,  Greek,  and  Arab  elements.  Taking  the  Asiatic 
Turk  as  he  appears  to-day,  ethnologists  agree  that  all  distinctive  Mongolic  features  have 
disappeared.  His  large  brown  eyes,  bushy  eyebrows,  full  beard,  and  strong  Avhite  teeth 
entitle  him  to  rank  as  a  really  high-class  representative  of  the  Caucasian  type.  This  is  not 
surprising  when  we  remember  that  the  Turkish  harem  is  largely  recruited  from  Circassian, 
Georgian,  Abkhasian,  and  other  peoples  of  the  Caucasus,  noted  for  their  physical  beauty. 

The  Turks  chiefly  inhabit  the  western  provinces.  Here  it  is  that  the  true  character  of 
that  once  all-conquering  people  is  most  fully  apparent.  As  their  early  history  shows,  they 
were  formerly  a  haughty  and  powerful  race,  and  possessed  great  aptitude  for  conquest.  They 
always  needed  the  goad  of  strong  feeling,  however,  to  bring  out  their  latent  capacity.  Under 
the  stress  of  necessity,  and  when  thoroughly  roused,  they  fought  with  irresistible  determination. 
When  the  spell  was  once  broken,  they  sank  back  into  a  state  of  indolence  and  proud 
seclusion.  Against  the  undoubted  prowess  of  the  Turk  on  the  battle-field  must  be  set  off 
his  entire  want  of  ability  to  make  any  use  of  his  Avarlike  achievements.  He  was  content  to 
do  nothing.  The  trader  who  supplied  his  needs  and  the  peasant  who  worked  for  him  he 
despised  impartially.  His  past  character  explains  much  of  the  seeming  inconsistency  which 
he  displays  to-day.  Far  outnumbering  all  other  races  in  these  western  provinces,  the  Turks 
do  not  enjoy  unchallenged  supremacy.  The  Greeks  and  Armenians  even  there  are  serious 


ASIA    MINOR 


257 


rivals.  They  have  a  more  active  spirit  than  the  Turks,  and  they  make  up  in  energy  what 
they  lack  in  numbers.  Their  presence  makes  it  necessary  for  the  Turk  to  be  ever  on 
the  watch,  that  he  may  even  maintain  himself  in  the  land  of  which  he  is,  politically, 
lord  and  master. 

The  Turks  form,  the  agricultural  portion  of  the  community.  The  Greeks  and  Armenians 
are  found  chiefly  in  the  towns,  where  they  are  writers,  artists,  merchants,  and  financiers. 
Nearly  all  the  trade  of  the  country  is  in  their  hands.  This  illustrates  the  non-progressive 
character  of  the  Mohammedan  doctrine.  When  the  Turk  does  work,  he  is  by  no  means 
incompetent.  He  is  excellent  as  a  cattle-breeder,  a  husbandman,  or  an  artisan.  He  is, 
however,  uninventive  and  lacks  astuteness;  and  these  defects  leave  him  far  behind  in  the 
race  with  his  sharp-witted  neighbours.  His  agriculture  remains  much  as  it  was  in  the  days 
when  Troy  was  besieged  on  the  heights  where  its  ruins  can  still  be  seen.  The  fig,  the  vine, 
and  the  olive,  bountifully  supplied  by  Nature,  furnish  the  Turkish  peasant  with  his  food,  and 
satisfy  all  his  limited  wants.  Accordingly  he  sees  no  necessity  for  troubling  himself  with 
any  studied  system  of  agriculture,  even  if  by  so  doing  he  could  make  the  soil  ten  times 
more  productive.  The  Turk 
speaks  his  own  language  only. 
The  Greeks  and  Armenians, 
on  the  other  hand,  speak  at 
least  two  from  their  infancy, 
and  are  often  highly  culti- 
vated. The  backwardness  of 
the  Turks  in  this  respect  may 
be  attributed  partly  to  their 
pride  and  partly  to  their 
contempt  for  all  non-Moham- 
medan peoples.  Their  want 
of  enterprise  and  social  emula- 
tion also  largely  accounts  for 
their  ignorance.  Very  few 
Turks  can  even  read  and 
write.  This  is  due  to  the 
great  difference  between  their 
language  as  it  is  written  with 
its  large  infusion  of  Arabic 
and  as  it  is  spoken. 

The  Turk  is  earnest,  re- 
served, and  endowed  with  a 
fair  share  of  intelligence,  but 
he  will  never  trouble  himself 
to  acquire  the  business  habits 
of  his  neighbours,  whom  he 
has  allowed  to  monopolise  all 
the  trade  and  wealth. 

In  one  respect  the  pride 
of  the  ruling  race  always 
asserts  itself.  Should  a  Turk 
be  found  dead  in  a  Greek 
village  in  Asia  Minor,  all  the 
notables  go  to  prison.  As  a 

rule,  a  Turk  who  kills  a  Greek  By  ptrmMw  «r  Mt*»r*.  sector,  A  Co.,  ?>,  Fleet  street,  B.C. 

or  Armenian  is  acquitted.  BUTTER-MAKINS  IN  GOAT-SKIN  CHURNS  (NESTORIANS,  ARMENIA). 

33 


2S8 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


ARMENIANS    WATER-CARRYING    (NESTORIANS). 


People  of  Turkish  race 
have  much  the  same  dress  all 
over  Asia  Minor  and  Syria. 
The  striped  silk  of  the  country 
is  the  favourite  material  for 
the  upper  clothing.  Heavy 
stuffs  with  gold-work  are  also 
very  popular. 

Colonel  Burnaby,  when 
going  through  Asia  Minor, 
was  struck  by  the  economical 
way  in  which  the  natives 
build  their  dwellings.  When 
a  man  is  old  enough  to 
marry,  and  wishes  to  set  up 
under  a  roof  of  his  own,  he 
marks  a  piece  of  ground, 
generally  of  an  oblong  shape, 
on  the  side  of  a  hill.  He 
then  digs  out  the  earth  to  a 
depth  of  6  or  7  feet.  His 
next  step  is  to  cut  down  wood 
and  make  six  stout  posts,  each 


about  10  feet  high.  These  he  drives  into  the  -ground  to  a  depth  of  3  feet,  putting  three 
posts  on  each  side  of  the  oblong.  Cross-beams  are  fastened  to  the  top  of  these  uprights,  and 
branches  of  trees,  laid  closely  and  plastered  down  with  clay,  make  S,  covering.  A  few  planks, 
with  a  hole  made  in  them  to  serve  as  a  doorway,  compose  the  ends  and  sides  of  the  building. 
The  door  is  formed  by  a  broad,  heavy  plank,  with  strips  of  cowhide  to  serve  as  hinges.  One 
part  is  devoted  to  lodging  such  sheep,  oxen,  camels,  and  cows  as  the  owner  of  the  house 
may  possess.  He  and  his  family  occupy  the  other  part.  No  partition  wall  separates  the  cattle 
from  the  human  tenants.  Colonel  Burnaby  may  well  be  believed  when  he/  says  that  the 
smell  which  arises  at  night  from  the  confined  air  and  the  animals  in  the  building  is  exces- 
sively disagreeable  to  a  •  European.  In  cold  weather  a  hole  in  the  roof  which  serves  as 
a  ventilator  is  stopped  up  by  a  large  stone.  The  inmates,  sometimes  consisting  of  twelve 
or  fourteen  people,  lie  huddled  together  on  the  floor.  In  the  poorer  houses  the  floor  is 
covered  with  rugs  made  of  camel's  hair,  and  in  the  houses  of  the  wealthier -class  with  thick 
Persian  carpets. 

The  Greeks  have  been  connected  with  Asia  Minor  from  the  earliest  period  of  their 
history.  Emigrants  went  out  from  ancient  Greece  and  seized  upon  the  maritime  border  of 
Asia,  where  they  planted  important  colonies.  These  formed  some  of  the  brightest  jewels  in 
the  diadem  of  imperial  Athens.  The  Asiatic  Greek  to-day  still  bears  many  of  the  physical 
characteristics  of  his  ancestors.  Tall  and  slim,  but  well  proportioned,  with  oval  face  and 
arched  nose,  regular  white  teeth,  animated  eyes,  and  small  hands  and  feet,  he  ranks  high 
among  civilised  races  in  personal  comeliness.  By  intermarriage  with  Armenians  and  other 
non-Hellenic  peoples  the  Greeks  have  no  doubt  lost  much  of  the  purity  of  their  race.  But 
their  pride  and  individuality  have  always  kept  them  from  extensive  intermixture  with  the 
peoples  among  whom  they  live.  Compared  with  their  European  brethren,  they  are  probably 
entitled  to  be  considered  more  typical  of  the  ancient  Greeks.  In  Smyrna,  and  even  inland, 
the  Hellenic  build  can  frequently  be  seen.  Greek  women 'may -from  time  to  time  have  passed 
into  Turkish  harems,  but  difference  of  faith  has  prevented  any  union  of  the  two  races.  His 
religion  assists  his  deep  sense  of  nationality  to  keep  the  Greek  of  Asia  Minor  comparatively 
free  from  foreign  elements. 


260 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


The  Greek  all  over  the 
world  is  known  for  his  clever- 
ness, subtlety,  and  energy. 
He  also  has  the  reputation  of 
being  deceitful  and  cunning. 
In  Asia  Minor  this  is  especially 
the  case.  If  his  faults  cannot 
be  excused,  they  can  at  any 
rate  be  explained.  He  has 
long  lived  under  Turkish  op- 
pression, and  it  is  only  by 
superior  ability  that  he  can 
hope  to  hold  his  own.  More- 
over, he  has  had  to  deal  with 
Orientals,  who  regard  sharp 
practice  in  business  matters 
almost  with  admiration. 

While  the  Turk  is  so 
indolent,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  the  active,  energetic, 
quick-witted  Greek,  in  com- 
petition with  him,  should 
seem  likely  to  attain  the 
leading  place  in  Asia  Minor 
which  the  former  has  in- 
herited. The  Greek  surpasses  the  Moslem  in  every  pursuit  in  which  both  engage.  He  is  a 
skilful  seafarer,  an  intelligent  farmer,  and  a  shrewd  trader.  He  excels  in  the  learned  professions. 
Teachers,  lawyers,  doctors,  and  bankers  are  in  nearly  every  instance  Greeks.  The  Greek  is 
chosen  to  be  the  broker  or  agent  who  negotiates  important  matters  of  business  for  "his 
Turkish  friend."  He  has  secured  almost  exclusive  control  over  local  finances  and  trade.  He 
never  forgets  that  he.  is  a  Greek.  His  pride  in  his  Hellenic  nationality  is  fostered  by  every 
means.  He  does  not  acquire  the  manners  or  the  creed  of  the  masters  of  the  land.  Consequently 
Asia  Minor  ia  becoming  more  Greek  than  Turkish.  Smyrna,  which  is  really  the  capital,  is 
a  Greek  city. 


By  permission  of  Messrs.  Newton  &  Co.,  3,  fleet  Street,  E.  C. 

AN   ENGLISH   MISSIONARY,    WITH   HIS  NATIVE   TEACHERS 


THE   ARMENIANS. 

THE  Armenian  race  formerly  numbered  8,000,000,  but  is  now  under  3,000,000.  In  Turkish 
Armenia  there  are  1,000,000;  in  Persian  Armenia,  150,000;  in  Caucasia  and  Russia  in 
Europe,  850,000;  in  Turkey  in  Europe,  250,000;  and  elsewhere,  60,000.  They  are  a  handsome 
race,  though  their  features  generally  are  large.  Of  the  Caucasian  type,  they  appear  to  be 
one  of  the  early  offshoots  of  the  Semitic  branch.  By  some  ethnologists  they  are  classed 
with  the  Iranian  group,  and  Ratzel  says  that  many  Armenians  could  be  described  as  fairer 
and  fatter  Persians.  In  appearance  they  are  strongly  suggestive  of  the  Jews.  Their  national 
name  is  Hai,  or  Haik,  or  Haiken.  The  average  Armenian  is  rather  above  the  medium  height. 
His  complexion  is  darkish  brown  or  yellow.  The  hair'  is  black  and  straight,  though  brown 
hair  is  often  seen,  and  in  young  people  even  fair  hair.  The  nose  is  large  and  sharply  curved, 
and  the  forehead  is  more  noticeable  for  width  than  height.  The  Armenian  has  a  marked 
tendency  to  run  to  fleshiness.  The  women  are  often  handsome, .  with  regular  features  and  a 
stately  carriage;  they  have  fine,  dark  eyes,  shaded  by  lashes  of  unusual  length  and  thickness, 
which  lend  their  olive  complexions  a  peculiar  charm. 

The    Armenian    is    serious,    industrious,    clever,    and    hospitable.       His    quick    intelligence 


THE    ARMENIANS 


261 


enables  him  to  adapt  himself  readily  to  the  manners  and  habits  of  the  people  among  whom 
he  may  happen  to  be  living.  This  intellectual  suppleness  makes  him  especially  qualified  for 
trading.  Timid  and  taciturn,  he  displays  at  least  an  outward  obedience  to  his  rulers. 

Their  history  past  and  present  surrounds  the  Armenians  with  a  halo  of  romance.  For 
centuries  they  have  had  no  separate  existence  as  a  nation.  Formerly  independent,  and  at 
^  times  even  powerful,  they  passed  under  the  influence  of  Persia,  which,  with  Turkey  and  in 
more  recent  years  Russia,  divides  the  sovereignty  over  them.  In  this  state  of  subjection  their 
position  has  been  little  better  than  that  of  slaves.  Yet  it  is  among  the  Armenians,  whose 
country  extends  into  Asia  Minor,  that  some  of  the  best  traditions  and  most  prevailing  religions 
have  started  out  to  influence  the  world. 

In  classic  times  Armenia  included  the  whole  of  the  Van  district  southward  to  the  38" 
parallel.  Their  land  has  been  the  arena  on  which  the  peoples  of  the  East  and  West  have  struggled 
for  the  dominion  of  Asia.  Assyrians,  Medes,  and  Persians  have  passed  through  it.  The  great 
generals  of  antiquity,  Darius,  Xerxes,  and  Alexander  the  Great,  have  led  their  armies  into  it. 
The  Roman  Empire  was  constantly  visiting  it  with  her  legions.  Arabs,  Mongols,  and  Tartars 
in  more  recent  times  overran  it  with  their  devastating  hordes.  In  many  respects  the  history 
of  the  Armenians  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  Jews.  Fated  to  be  driven  from  their  own 
homes,  and  the  victims  of  every  conceivable  form  of  political  mischance,  they  have  proved 
their  Semitic  ancestry  by  their  remarkable  power  of  persistence  as  a  people.  Their  family 
and  tribal  sentiment,  the  depth  of  their  consciousness  of  nationality,  and  their  religion  have 
been  preserved  by  them  for  generations  without  the  least  apparent  diminution.  It  is  to 
these  elements  of  national  character  that  they  owe  their  survival.  Even  at  the  present  time 
the  Armenians  in  Turkey  are  subject  to  the  harassing  incursions  of  nomad  Kurds,  who  quarter 
themselves  in  Armenian  villages  and  compel  their  hosts  to  feed  them  and  their  cattle,  without 
the  slightest  payment  in  return  except  in  the  form  of  insults  and  blows.  It  is  not  more  than 
a  few  years  ago  that  Europe  was  startled  and  shocked  by  the  dreadful  massacres  which  the 
Sultan's  unruly  subjects  perpetrated  wholesale  in  Armenia. 


By  per 


itsion  of  Messrs.  Newton  &  Co.,  3  Fleet  Street,  E.  C. 

ARMENIAN    ORPHANS  RESCUED    FROM    THE    MASSACRES. 


262 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


By  permission  of  Messrs.  Newton  &  Co.,  3,'Fleet  Street,  E.C. 
A   KURDISH   MOUNTAIN   CHIEF    (HEAD    OF  TRIBE). 


Like  the  Jews,  the  majority  of  the 
Armenians  are  scattered  all  over  the  face 
of  the  earth.  They  live  for  the  most 
part  in  separate  communities,  and  passion- 
ately cherish  the  spirit  of  national 
brotherhood.  Wherever  they  may  be, 
their  affections  always  turn  to  the  moun- 
tains and  plains  west  of  the  Euphrates, 
which  they  still  regard  as  their  home. 
These  contain  the  places  which  they 
esteem  more  sacred  than  any  others  on 
earth.  Armenians  are  to  be  found  in 
almost  all  Turkish  provinces,  but  chiefly 
that  of  Erzeroum.  By  no  means  the 
most  numerous  part  of  the  nation  lives 
in  Asia  Minor.  A  large  number  live  in 
Erivan,  a  province  acquired  from  Persia 
by  Eussia  some  thirty  years  ago.  Alto- 
gether there  are  about  800,000  in  the 
Russian  Empire.  Many  Armenians  are 
merchants  in  Persia,  where  they  have  a 
colony  near  Ispahan.  Others,  again,  are 
found  in  European  Turkey,  while  in  India 
they  share  with  Jews  and  Parsis  almost 
the  entire  monopoly  of  banking.  They 
appear  in  the  great  commercial  cities  of 
the  Mediterranean,  in  the  Austrian  Empire, 
and  in  Africa.  Armenians  have  long  been 
established  in  Great  Britain,  where  they 
are  chiefly  engaged  in  commercial  pur- 
since  1840.  In  1862  they  were  numerous 
In  1870  they  built  a 
Armenian 
Occa- 


suits.       They    have    been    settled    at    Manchester 

enough  to   rent   a  private   house   for   the   celebration  of  divine  worship. 

church,   where   service   is    conducted    every   Sunday   according    to   Armenian   ritual. 

merchants  are  established  at  Liverpool.     In  London  they  form  a  considerable  community. 

sionally  a  few  Armenians  study  at  Edinburgh  and  Oxford. 

Creyle  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  national  costume  of  Armenian  ladies.  The  way 
in  which  they  are  muffled  and  swathed  when  they  appear  in  the  streets  entirely  conceals  their 
charms.  In  their  own  homes  they  present  a  very  different  appearance.  When  not  dressed  up 
to  receive  visitors,  their  ordinary  costume  consists  of  a  pair  of  very  loose,  bright-coloured  trousers, 
secured  tightly  over  the  ankle,  so  as  to  expose  the  naked  foot.  The  upper  part  of  the  body 
is  covered  with  a  chemise,  which  is  made  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the  throat  bare.  It  is 
fastened  tightly  round  the  waist  with  a  gold,  silver,  or  velvet  band.  It  goes  down  outside  the 
trousers  as  far  as  the  knee.  Over  this  appears  a  kind  of  embroidered  waistcoat,  cut  square,  open 
in  front,  and  secured  with  a  string  just  below  the  bosom.  These  three  garments  complete 
their  costume  when  they  are  enjoying  the  ease  and  privacy  of  their  homes.  Their  hair,  which 
is  usually  silky  black  and  of  abundant  growth,  falls  down  the  back  in  a  great  thick  plait,  tied 
up  at  the  end  with  bunches  of  ribbon.  When  obliged  to  show  themselves  to  strangers,  they 
sacrifice  nearly  all  this  easy  grace  and  beauty  to  modern  fashions.  They  encase  their  feet  in 
square-toed  French  boots,  which  hardly  ever  fit,  and  invariably  give  the  wearers  an  awkward 
gait  when  they  move.  The  trousers,  chemise,  and  embroidered  waistcoat  are  all  covered  up 
with  a  bright  green,  red,  or  yellow  silk  gown.  This  is  made  in  such  a  Avay,  and  so  badly  put 
on,  that,  when  looked  at  from  behind,  the  ladies  appear  awkward,  misshapen,  and  squat. 


THE    ARMENIANS 


263 


There  is  no  nation  in  the  East  where,  so  it  is  said,  women  occupy  so  exalted  a  position 
as  among  the  Armenians.  When  a  man  dies  leaving  a  widow,  she  becomes  the  head  of  a 
community  consisting  of  all  her  children,  with  their  husbands  and  wives,  and  all  her  grand- 
children. She  is  regarded  by  this  little  society  in  the  light  of  a  queen.  It  is  not  till  her 
death  that  the  family  breaks  up,  some  of  them  perhaps  to  group  themselves  again  under  one 
of  her  daughters  as  their  chief tainess. 

At  one  time  the  Armenians  seem  to  have  been  fire-worshippers,  like  the  ancient  Persians 
and  the  modern  Parsis.  However,  they  have  long  been  Christians,  and  are  devout  members 
of  a  Church  which  is  in  many  ways  distinctive.  Some  are  Nestorians,  while  a  few  are  Eoman 
Catholics,  Gregoriaus,  and  Protestants.  The  Nestorians  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  Ba&in, 
numbering  about  200,000,  reject  both  the  name  and  the  doctrine  of  Nestorius.  The  word  is 
a  corruption  of  Nessarani,  from  Nazareth,  commonly  applied  in  the  East  to  Christians.  The 
Armenian  Church  has  a  ritual  of  its  own,  approximating  more  closely  to  the  Greek  than  the 
Latin  branch.  One  of  the  oldest  translations  of  the  Bible  is  in  the  Armenian  tongue.  There 
are  also  many  works  of  great  antiquity,  which  deal  with  matters  of  Christian  doctrine,  composed 
in  Armenia.  In  Erivan  they  have  a  monastery,  where  resides  the  Patriarch,  whom  all  orthodox 
Armenians  regard  as  their  spiritual  head. 

Other  monasteries  are  found  in  different  parts  of  Armenia  and  Asia  Minor.  Perhaps  the 
most  celebrated  Armenian  monastery  is  on  the  island  of  San  Lazzaro  in  Venice.  This  island 
was  handed  over  by  the  Eepublic  of  Venice  in  the  year  1715  to  the  Armenian  monks  whom 
Mekhitar  had  brought  with 
him  in  his  flight  before  an 
invading  army  of  Turks.  The 
Mekhitarist  congregation  has 
been  permanently  fixed  there 
ever  since  that  time,  and  has 
acquired  a  position  of  great 
importance  in  the  Armenian 
world.  The  monastery  has 
a  library  containing  30,000 
printed  volumes  and  2,000 
Armenian  manuscripts,  some 
of  which  are  very  ancient. 
There  are  also  the  first 
editions  of  the  Armenian 
classics,  of  which  the  OAvners 
are  naturally  proud.  The 
community  is  under  the 
authority  of  a  principal,  who 
is  styled  Archbishop  of 
Siounic,  and  a  chapter.  The 
resident  brothers  occupy 
themselves  with  teaching  and 
composing  or  translating 
educational,  scientific,  and 
religious  works.  These  books 
are  distributed  in  great 
numbers  among  the  Ar- 
menians in  every  part  of  the 
world.  The  Mekhitarists  have 
also  founded  two  colleges,  one 
in  Venice,  the  other  in  Paris, 


Messrs.  Sexton  it-  Co.,  3,  Fleet  Street,  E.  C. 
KURDISH   MOUNTAIN   BRIGANDS,   ARMENIA. 


THE    LIVING    RACES    OF    MANKIND 


Photo  by  Vitlorio  Sella] 


PEOPLE    OF   TRANSCAUCASIA. 


where  brothers  of  the  order,  assisted  by  French  professors,  educate  young  Armenians.  Many 
of  their  pupils  afterwards  enter  the  service  of  the  Turkish,  Persian,  and  Kussian  Governments, 
in  which  some  of  them  prove  the  excellence  of  the  education  they  have  received  by  rising  to 
the  highest  administrative  posts. 

Yriarte,  in  his  work  on  Venice,  gives  a  graphic  description  of  the  gorgeous  ritual  for 
which  the  Armenian  Church  is  celebrated.  Describing  a  high  festival  at  San  Lazzaro,  he 
says  that  "the  pontiff  and  his  clergy,  clothed  in  the  sacerdotal  vestments,  intone  the 
sacred  chants  preserved  for  centuries  by  the  national  tradition.  The  robes  worn  by  the 
archbishop  and  clergy  are  of  the  richest  materials  and  most  delicate  colours,  enriched  with 
embroideries,  pearls,  and  silk.  .  .  .  The  costume  of  the  archbishop  consists  of  a  pontifical  robe, 
hidden  under  the  large  folds  of  a  Byzantine  dalmatic;  he  wears  the  mitre  ornamented  with 
the  emblematic  triangle,  on  the  ground  of  which  stands  out  the  mystic  eye  of  the  Deity; 
and  in  his  hand  he  holds  the  episcopal  staff,  the  symbol  of  his  dignity.  The  second  personage 
is  the  Vartalud  Ananias,  vicar-general  of  the  monastery.  He  wears  the  dress  of  the  Armenian 
doctors,  the  Greek  cap  on  his  head;  he  holds  the  doctoral  staff,  of  which  the  top  is  in  the 
form  of  two  serpents.  Then  follows  the  archdeacon,  dressed  in  the  alb,  wearing  the  stole  and 
the  sacerdotal  cap;  his  function  during  the  service  is  to  hold  the  censer.  The  effect  of  all 
this  is  extremely  grand.  The  deacon  also  wears  the  alb  and  the  stole  as  a  scarf;  it  is  his 
duty  to  hold  the  gospel  to  be  kissed  by  the  clergy  and  assistants.  The  sub-deacon  wears  the 
alb;  the  stole  rests  only  on  his  left  arm;  during  the  ceremony  he  swings  a  metal  instrument 
(kechotli,  in  Latin  flabellum),  which  is  in  the  shape  of  a  disk,  ornamented  in  the  centre  with 
the  head  of  a  winged  angel.  Eight  acolytes,  dressed  in  long  albs,  carry  the  insignia  of  the 
ttrchi-episcopal  office,  the  mitre  and  pallium;  others  hold  the  cross,  the  Latin  cross,  the  doctoral 
staff,  and  the  staff  surmounted  with  the  globe  and  cross,  the  badge  of  the  diocese  of  Siounic, 
of  which  the  principals  of  the  Mekhitarists  are  the  titularies." 


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